Purpose of College Education

There is no doubt that education plays an important role in people's lives. At a very young age, people begin spending time in school to acquire the basic things necessary in life including reading and writing. They progress to more complicated lessons as time goes on. However, the most important education that a person can receive would probably be tertiary education. This is also known as college education where people are able to pick an area or field that they want to specialize in. The primary purpose of a college education would be for a person to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge in his or her chosen career and become fully prepared for the real world. For the students, a college education is a means of pursuing their dreams and ambitions in life (Borade, 2009). There are many people who believe that having a bachelor's degree will present more opportunities for them. Although there are several individuals who have become successful even without finishing their college education, it is still more effective if people graduate from college, especially if education is all that they have. Nowadays, companies and employers prefer to hire individuals who have college degrees and would pay even more if they have masterals or doctorate degrees. Having a college degree increases individuals' chances of being hired in the corporate world rather than having average and low-paying jobs. â€Å"For a parent, the very purpose of a good college education is to enable the child to probe the realms of thought and access real higher learning† (Borade, 2009). Parents only want the best for their children. They want to see their children succeed in everything that they do. They push their children to finish college because they know that this will benefit their children in the future. They want their children to maximize their full potential and bring out the best that they can be in life through academic learning. Academic institutions also plays a role in the academic lives of students. Their purpose is to provide the best educational experience to the students enrolled in their campus. For them, the purpose of college education is for them to act out their roles as providers of education. Without them, people will have nowhere to go to receive education. The staff and the institution greatly help students mold themselves into the best individuals that they can be in the future. However, it is important to note that not all people believe in a college education. These people think that everyone can become successful even without finishing tertiary education. This is not hard to believe since there are numerous college drop outs that have emerged to become successful in their respective fields. Still, people, especially young students should not rely on this information and try their best to excel on their own. They should keep in mind that not all people are lucky and fortunate enough to attend college. While they have the chance, they should make the most out of it and make sure that they benefit from the learning process. As stated above, the primary purpose of a college education is to prepare the students for the real world. However, there are many who decide to â€Å"rush through their college years without taking the time to explore avenues of thought that could broaden their perspectives† (Nguyen, n. d. ). Students should always remember that they can only experience education the fullest way when they take the time to absorb everything that they are being taught. They will not be prepared if they take it too fast or too slow. Thus, the true purpose of college education will be defeated.

Trip to Karachi

Last winter we, a group of ten student, went to Karachi. Our collage had arranged this tour. Our professor. Mr.. Name Hosannas, was in charge of the party. All of us had looked forward to this tour. We had not seen Karachi, but had heard from people that it was a wonderful city. In particular we were very eager to sue the ocean. It was the 25th of December. When we left Lahore by train. The journey was long. The winter was more severe than usual. But we were happy, and the long. Slow Journey did not dampen our high spirits. Next daddy reached Karachi late in the afternoon.We went draught to the boy scouts hostel on the new queens road where we had arranged to stay. One our way to the hostel. We had our first view of Karachi. The very first thing we noticed was that the road were very wide. The traffic was much greater than that we had seen In Lahore. The number of cars we saw on the roads Indicated the prosperity of the city. The building were really palatial. On reaching the hostel we felt tired. We decided to spend the evening quietly in our rooms. Next day, early in the morning, we began our tour of the city. First of all we went to the Mazda of our beloved leader, Squad ?I-Gamma , to pay our homage.After offering faith we went to the house where Q aid-I-Gamma was born. It was an old there-storey building. The room where our leader was born was on the first floor. Some of the furniture and clothes of Squad-I-Gamma were on the show In the room. After this we went to Clifton beach . The most popular picnic resort in Karachi There we saw the sea for the first time. A great expanse of water was before us. It stretched as far as the eye could see. We stripped and not the sea for a swim. Our professor was all the time telling us not to go very far. After the swim, we had tea In a restaurant the beach. It was now mum for lunch.So we returned to the city. After taking our lunch. We felt rather tired and decided to rest to a couple of house. In the evening we want ou t and roamed in the bazaar till late in the night. Every one seemed to be in a hurry. The big hotels of Karachi were splendid buildings. They were richly decorated. Very brightly. It and filled with the sounds of music and laughter. Next day we visited Karachi port and manor island. The naval authorities very kindly allowed us to visit the PENS . Jelled , the officers and men of the ship were very courteous. They showed us all over the hip and explained everything we wanted to know . N the evening, we went to see the airport. The first Item on our programmer for the next day was a visit to the state bank, it was a magnificent building. We were very much impressed by its roof- garden and tastefully decorated conference hall and library. The rest day we spent in visiting the national museum and the Karachi zoo, it was our blast day in Karachi Trip to Karachi By Abductees Last winter we, a group of ten student, went to Karachi. Our collage had arranged 25th of December. When we left La hore by train. The Journey was long. The winter dampen our high spirits. Next day we reached Karachi late in the afternoon.We went we had seen in Lahore. The number of cars we saw on the roads indicated the beloved leader, Squad -I-Gamma , to pay our homage. After offering faith we went to clothes of Squad-I-Gamma were on the show in the room. After this we went to Clifton beach , the most popular picnic resort in Karachi. There we saw the sea for the first to go very far. After the swim, we had tea in a restaurant the beach. It was now time Karachi were splendid buildings. They were richly decorated. Very brightly. It and airport. The first item on our programmer for the next day was a visit to the state

Fruits and Their Tastes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fruits and Their Tastes - Essay Example A fruit has various chemical compounds in it namely proteins or cellulose, starch, vitamins and fructose. Depending on the amount of each and every one of these chemical compounds present in a fruit the tastes may be different. This is because the content of the fruit dictates the specific taste that is in the fruits. The bitterness of a fruit is determined by the chemical compounds that are available in it. For us to understand why there are variations in terms of the tastes in a fruit as it ripens we must understand the process of ripening. It involves the declining or increasing of the levels of acids or fructose. During the early stages in a fruit formation, the levels of acids contained in a fruit are very high. As the process of formation matures and ripening draws closer, the levels of acids tend to decrease. The acids are slowly converted into fructose as the process of ripening begins and as this happens the fruits start to become sweeter. For instance, mangoes, they are rea lly sour when raw but sweet when ripe. This perfectly reflects the explanation above where the change in composition of acids and fructose is reflected in the change of taste. There are fruits which have no particular taste. Take the water melon for example. They contain the same (equal) amount of fructose and acids; therefore they cannot be classified as extremely sweet or sour. Their tastes tend to be neutral. (Mauseth, 2003, p 81) 2. How does the ripening of fruit affect the process of seed dispersal? Seed dispersal is simply the method of propagation used by a plant. This is importance for the survival of a plant in its environment. The process that entails ripening is very much useful when it comes to the mechanism of seed dispersal to be used by the fruit. Fruits that are dispersed by wind are often very light and easy to detach from the plant. They undergo a lot of dehydration so that by the time they ripen they can easily be carried by the wind. The same case applies to frui ts which undergo self dispersal. They have to be dry enough so that they can burst and get dispersed. Fruits that are dispersed by animals go through a process of ripening that attracts animals to them either by bright colors or by scent. The enzymes that control this process (ripening) end up causing animals to come near these fruits leading to their dispersal. 3. How do humans interfere in this process by consuming grains and fruits? When human beings shake a plant whose seed dispersal mechanism is self, the seed just fall onto the ground. The best example here is the beans. (Note that the shaking is necessitated by the need to consume the grains). When the fruit is fully dehydrated human interference speeds up its self dispersal through explosion. When humans eat some fruits whose seed can be swallowed, then they can either destroy the seed itself (by chewing) or dispose the seed out of the digestive system. Depending on the environment where the seed is disposed, it can die or g o ahead and germinate. For a fruit like banana, when it’s harvested, the plant is disposed but then a sucker is planted as its means of propagation. There are cases where humans consume fruits with a conscious intention to preserve its seeds so that they can be prepared for planting. Though rare this leads to conscious seed dispersal and propagation. Humans wait until some fruits ripen fully while they don’

Philosophy- Dualism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy- Dualism - Essay Example In the world of religion, there is the persistent visible combat between what is good and that which is evil. In general, the key centre of argument is a belief in existence of two morally opposing links which cannot occur at the same moment. Occurrence of one means the other cannot happen concurrently. One cannot be a male and female at the same time under normal spheres of life. On the other hand, darkness and lights are two scenarios which cannot occur one on top of the other at the same time. In addition, it is impractical to display an active and at the same time passive .No one can be in motion at a stand still. To create an extinct reality, contrast is applied to experience something. These reciprocal interactions are what is referred to as a feedback loop an axis where two antagonizing forces do not oppose each other in occurrence but instead inverse to encourage stability. Active part of every autonomous unit lays a function of its contradictory. For instance, in illness lie s good health, in sadness is passive happiness. This concept applies the basic reality in simultaneous interaction of generally bad or good (Miller 6). Human mind is comprises of more components rather than just the brains. There is a spiritual non-materialist dimension encompassing consciousness and holistic eternal element. To comprehend this concept, an individual should imagine himself being an urn containing the physical body, brains alongside non physical parts like the mind, soul, spirit as the cables connected to urn to enable it perform completely and wholly desired by its owner who is the individual. Just like in a radio, the sound waves are not physical but the radio is just a piece of a thing without well configured waves. In contradiction, materialism concept concentrates only on physical aspects of material and dismisses non-physical parts as vague imagination. If this is true, then dualism is just but a wild imagination. However, in practicality, this cannot be true a s the human mind would completely lack the conscious and non conscious components actively involved in imagination and reasoning. Mind then would be compared to programmed software in a computer operating on manuals like machines (Miller 7). The brain would only reorganize the usual module of operation rather than normal free choice alternating between emotions, desires, will, thoughts and angulating sensations. Materialistic mind would only detect a pre determined program based no more than the edict of nature. With these revelations, dualism seem to carry the day as many scientists have come to accept that the law of science, cannot comprehensively explain the root components of the conscious and sub conscious attachments of human mind. The only response which would be expected from material minds would be machinery response rather than responsibility of behavior as all their action would be directed just by a program based on matter attributes. It would be difficult in that world to even allocated the lowest percentage of trust to our minds that are dependent on matter to carry out its duty. Dualism exist in so many varieties, one being substance dualism and the second variety is property dualism. Substance and property dualisms are but ones way of choosing what things are dualistic about. The third variety of dualism, which is however, the weakest form of dualism, is predicate dualism. This form is possible for the description of

Background and issue of Kenya Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Background and issue of Kenya - Assignment Example Background and issue of Kenya These terror attacks include the Mpeketoni and Lamu attacks in the coastal regions, the Westgate Mall attacks in the capital city of Kenya-Nairobi and other attacks in Mandera, and Wajir in northeastern Kenya. All these coupled with the negative and exaggerated media reports on the security situation in the country has led to the decline in the number of tourists in the country (Ellis and Bank, 2007, p. 300). However, the government has intervened to ensure that the issue of security is resolved once and for all. This report will include a statement of issues facing tourism sector in the country, portrayal of the country and the tourism sites together with the tourism ITS perspectives. There are various issues facing tourism industry in Kenya. One of them is the issue of insecurity especially through various terror attacks. Recently, the terror groups have embarked on posing a security threat to the country thus reducing the number of tourists in the country. One of the massive terror attacks occurred in the Westgate mall in September 2013 (Obadiah, Nicholas and Josephine, 2012, p. 23). This terror attacks claimed many lives in the country and it resulted into tourism fearing for their security thus failing to tour the country as they did before. The second issue facing the tourism sector in the country is due to poor infrastructure. Most of the tourist destinations have inaccessible roads since they are located in remote areas making them almost inaccessible to the tourists.

Team Building for Conflict Resolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Team Building for Conflict Resolution - Essay Example Conflicts are an ingrained and in-built part of the human psyche. In our everyday lives, whatever roles we play, wherever we live or work, conflicts are naturally occurring all the time. Even in such compact structures as families, which are supposed to be naturally caring and altruistic, conflicts arise all the time. The notion of conflict emerges from the notion of diverse mindsets. In any situation where two or more people come together on a common ground and think for a common problem or agenda, it leads to conflict. Since no two people are alike and no two minds work the same way, people naturally end up disagreeing or thinking differently from their other counterparts, which leads to the emergence of conflicts (Payne, 2001). One may ask, why solve conflicts? A better question may be, why is so much attention devoted to conflicts and if lack of attention on conflict resolution leads to any adverse outcomes? Well, there are multiple answers for that. First, the conflicts arise du e to the differences of opinions and the emphasis here is on differences. Differences usually hold a negative connotation to them; however, having a wide range of options to choose form makes the ultimate solution much more creative and better. Thus, solving conflicts is important because it is through the process that one attains a mutually agreed-upon, more compatible and enhanced solutions to the issues. Secondly, solving conflicts is also important because it is through them that the human resource of any organization stays cohesive and bonded. If conflicts are not resolved aptly and efficiently, it might lead to severe damages in relationships and inefficiency in working together and effective communication (Morris et al, 2008). Now one might ask, what can be done to resolve conflicts, if any arises? Well, the answers to these questions are many depending on different contexts in which conflicts arise. First, conflict should be perceived in a positive light rather than pessimis tically. Managers should encourage conflicts to take on in the positive direction and stimulate lateral thinking than arousing opposing parties to hold grudges against each other. Conflict resolution must also entail the element of listening out the other parties’ arguments. Many times people do not listen to others and make certain assumptions regarding their beliefs and attitudes only to regret later. An effective communication tool is to be able to listen to other people and more importantly, empathize with them. Imagine a case scenario in which Mr. Alex and Mr. Brown had an argument over the interface of the new layout of the website that was launched by their company few months back. Before their first meeting about the topic at hand, the manager sent out an email to both of them stating the agenda of the meeting and explaining that Mr. Alex has a tech-savvy background and he suggests that the interface should be of aqua theme. Mr. Brown who has been a loyal employee wan ted the theme to be more professional, something along the lines of white and black. When they met for the first time, Alex came with a pre-conceived assumption that he has an edge over Brown since he has more credentials in the field

Article Review, Scaffolding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Article Review, Scaffolding - Essay Example A qualitative research approach was used for the program. A phonemic awareness lesson taught by a preschool teacher was taken for analysis which showed that children picked randomly were unable to comprehend or understand phonemics of words. Several factors, such as socio-cultural, non-understanding of the teacher’s instructions, or of the words used or what they are exactly required to do, could be the reason for the silent responses of these children. Hence support systems that could be provided by the teachers were worked upon which lead to devising the scaffolding method of creating phonemic awareness, which is reviewed in this article. Through the process of scaffolding teachers provide a support system, through comments and instructions, to children to complete a given task. It is not a random assignment process as it is tailor-made for each child depending on their inherent ability to perform the task. Keeping in mind the outcomes that could be expected from children wh o have varying grasping and performing abilities, three levels of scaffolding have been proposed. Beginning with children who have the least ability to grasp what is being told up to children who have a good grasping power, each level in scaffolding provides specific help to the children until the desired result is obtained. The authors have provided a transcript which outlines how the three levels of scaffolding have been used with children in a preschool classroom. However the effect size in this study is too small to ascertain the reach of this process among children. The three levels of scaffolding explained in the article include: intense, moderate and minimum. In the case of intense scaffolding the beginning phoneme is isolated and the teacher emphasizes on the phoneme while saying the word. In addition the teacher also instructs the children to watch them as

Charles Gains Conceptualism in Los Angeles Essay

Charles Gains Conceptualism in Los Angeles - Essay Example Ever since the 1960s2, when art in Los Angeles was defined by the introduction of abstract depictions, conceptualization has grown steadily amongst artists. Previous, one sees many faces in painting3 which had led to modernism by themed-nineteenth century. In conceptualization, the focus is on using abstract modes of expression to depict materials that we see around us in daily life, in an all new way. The main advantage of having such an art form was that lovers of art got a new perspective to look at nature and things around them. The perspective was believed to be initially impressionistic. Greenberg in his work Towards a Newer Laocoon, historically delineates how art has been evolving to become â€Å"pure† in its â€Å"medium† and in doing so it must retain the paint and the canvas for what it is and only convey sensation. Once this prescription has been satisfied the painter has achieved the â€Å"medium† of abstract art. Clark’s interpretation of Gre enberg’s Towards a Newer Laocoon, sparks a heated debate between him and Michael Fried. Clark argues that Greenberg is historicizing in his writing and ignoring that art is a reflection of the artist social environment. Formalism should not be the only thing accounted for in a painting but content as well. Artistic standards in history go hand in hand with social practice, which is evident in nineteenth-century Romantics. According to Clement Greenberg (1982), official painting and art forms were set to take a backseat in new forms of artistic depiction. Greenberg argues that if an artwork can be interpreted and agreed upon to be representative of a specific â€Å"situation† or â€Å" object†, then it is merely an imitation rather than a medium. Art (paintings and sculptures) in the 17th and 18th century was directly imitating literature, and so literature being the medium- art was just an illusion of literature.

Special Education Comprehensive Essay Exam Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Special Education Comprehensive Exam - Essay Example Within the context of the stated, one of the primary challenges to inclusion is scepticism and the attitude of general education teachers. The said challenges are amply evidenced in the case study, whereby two of John's teachers are, to some degree, do not understand why John should be included in their classes, of what possible benefit his inclusion could be and how to assess his learning or progress. Needless to say, John's cognitive, if not motor, impairment has the potential to contribute to the said scepticism. At the same time, John's willingness to participate and the obvious enthusiasm he expressed during history classes underscore the degree to which inclusion in GE classes has the potential to constructively contribute to John's academic development. This potential can only be realized, however, if inclusive values are promoted and John's teachers organize and deliver instructions. As indicated in the case study, two of John's teachers are somewhat opposed to inclusion, these being Mr. Johnson and Mr. Hardy; two are ambivalent, these being Mrs. Smith and Ms. Fuquay, in that while they are not opposed to John's inclusion, do not appear willing to really go out of their way to accommodate him. In fact, apart from Mr. Eagerhart who is working with a special educator and teaching to a primarily special needs group, only Ms. Chang is enthusiastic. The implication here is that across John's classes, there are varying attitudes towards his inclusion, thereby underscoring the imperatives of promoting inclusive values. The promotion of inclusive values, as will be illustrated through reference to the relevant literature, is predicated on the school's embracing inclusivity. A positive and supportive school philosophy towards inclusion and students with disabilities is crucial for a successful inclusion program (Baird, 1990; Emerson & Maddox, 1997; Salisbury et al., 1993; Simpson, Myles & Simpson, 1997; Stainback et al., 1992; Webber, 1997). Thus, a positive classroom climate should be established. A positive classroom climate is one that is accepting of individual differences and promotes the idea that all students, including students with disabilities, should have the same access to knowledge, growth, achievement, success and belonging (Webber). When teachers and faculty communicate about a student with a disability, he or she should be referred to by name, grade level or subject area without mention of a disability label (Montie et al., 1992). According to Simpson et al. (1997), inclusion programs can be successful only to the extent that they foster an educational environment in which students with disabilities are socially integrated and experience acceptance. However, they

Visiting Forces Agreement Essay Example for Free

Visiting Forces Agreement Essay Thesis Statement: The Philippines should consider terminating its Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) with the United States before it’s too late for the government to overcome its unexpected dilemma. I.What is the RP–US Visiting Forces Agreement? a.A bilateral agreement between the between the Philippines and the United States consisting of two separate agreement documents. a.Balikatan as VFA-1 b.Balikatan as VFA-2 or the Counterpart Agreement II.There are several negative effects of â€Å"Balikatan† in the country. 1.Balikatan exercises threatened our environment and ecological resources. a.In the past Balikatan exercises, war and combat simulations which involved maneuverings and live fire exercises have caused coral reef destruction and ecological pollution. b.Dumping of toxic wastes and nuclear-powered submarines are very dangerous to the health. 2.Balikatan exercises can affect the peace and order situation in the country. a.Danger to life, honor, safety, and peace of the citizens, like what happened to Nicole (Subic Bay rape victim) and to the other Filipinos threatened since the VFA was signed. 3.Balikatan exercises can affect the industrial and agricultural sector. a.During the dangerous exercises, farmers, fisher folk and indigenous people are banned from attending crops or fishing at the seas, thus, does it affect their livelihood. III.What are other alternatives aside from recent visiting forces agreement? a.Improved the facilities and human forces by setting the international standard in military tactics. b.A new refined and version of visiting forces agreement with the US or other countries that protects the Philippine and international laws on the protection and preservation of the environment.

The Structure And Function Of Proteins Biology Essay

The Structure And Function Of Proteins Biology Essay Proteins are large macromolecules which consist of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen; proteins are polymeric chains that are built from monomers known as amino acids. Proteins have a major function in a living organism, for example, the replication of DNA, catalysing metabolic reactions (catalyst); stimulus response and also transporting molecules form one place to another. There are 20 different types of amino acids which synthesize proteins, however the function and different properties of each type of protein is due to the precise sequence and structure of the amino acids present. Each amino acid consists of a central carbon atom (C), which is attached to a hydrogen atom (H), an amino group (also known as NH2 group), a carboxyl group (- COOH, this gives up a proton hence why this is known as an acid) and also a unique side chain or R group. Amino acids are linked linearly via covalent peptide bonds, short chain amino acids are known as peptides whereas long chain formations of amino acids are called polypeptides, where the peptide bond is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group on the neighbouring amino acid. This reaction occurs as a condensation reaction where there is a removal of a hydrogen atom from the amino group of one amino acid and the removal of a à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬OH group from the carboxyl acid from another amino acid forming a water molecule (Fig 1). http://ibhumanbiochemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/CondensationReaction.jpg/31781961/CondensationReaction.jpg Fig 1: a condensation reaction between two amino acid molecules, there is a formation of a water molecule as a waste product. The unique side chain or R group is what disguises one amino acid from another; the overall structure and properties of the proteins are therefore dependent on sequence of the R group of each amino acid. Furthermore these variations of the R group and also the arrangements of the other amino acids would form a number of different polypeptides. Each protein consists of a different number of these polypeptide chains which are folded into complex three dimensional shapes therefore different proteins would have different shapes. There are four levels of protein organization found in polypeptides; these structures are known as: primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and also quaternary structure. Primary structures is the basic structure of the levels of organization, the primary structure is the linear arrangements/sequence found of the amino acid in the protein, and also could be thought of as the covalent linkages found in the polypeptide chain or the protein, such as a disulphide bond. The secondary structure is the areas of folding found within the protein, where there is an ordered arrangement of the amino acids in some localized regions of the polypeptide molecule; hydrogen bonds play a vital role in stabilizing the folding patterns which are found in the protein molecule. Although the conformation of each protein molecule are considered unique, there are two main types of secondary structure, or folding patterns, that are often present; these are the alpha helix and the anti-parallel beta-pleated sheets, these two folding patterns are common due to the hydrogen bonding occurs between the N-H and C=O groups in the backbone of the polypeptide. However there are a number of other secondary structures but the alpha helix and the anti-parallel sheets are the most stable form of secondary structures found. Furthermore there may be a number of these two types of secondary structure found in a single polypeptide chain. An alpha helix is spiral structure where this could be either a right handed or left handed spiral, in which the peptide bonds are found to be Trans conformational and planar, it would also be found that the amino group of each of the peptide bonds is generally in the upward position where as the carboxyl group points in the downwards position. An alpha helix structure is generated when a single polypeptide chain has turned around itself to form a rigid cylinder where a hydrogen bond is formed between every fourth amino acid (fig 1.2), which links the C=O group of one peptide bond to the N-H group on another amino acid (fig 1.2). http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit3/viruses/images/alphahelix.jpg Fig 1.2: shows the hydrogen bond formed between every fourth amino acid, also linking the N-H group and O=H group. There are two types of beta sheets; parallel and anti-parallel beta sheets. The Beta pleated sheets are extended polypeptide chains with another neighbouring polypeptide chain extending either parallel or anti-parallel to each other, this occurs due to the hydrogen bonds being formed between the segments of the polypeptide chain so are essentially place side by side. The parallel beta sheets is when the structure is shown to consist a polypeptide chain and neighbouring polypeptide chain that would run in the same direction (from the N-terminus to the C-terminus), is known as the parallel beta sheet (Fig 2.1), whereas when the polypeptide chain runs in the opposite direction of that of its neighbouring chain, it is known as an anti-parallel beta sheet (Fig 2.2). http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSXEJyNbzn7F6PlFREwMGrUg4oz5Ysk1Fho12R9GMWzGFSIQjfK9M9bVZ80 Fig 2.1: shows the parallel beta sheets, the dotted line represents hydrogen bonds. The polypeptide chains shown are placed side by side but run in the same direction so are parallel to each other. Fig 2.2: shows the anti-parallel beta sheets, the dotted line represents hydrogen bonds. The polypeptide chains shown are placed side by side but run in the opposite direction so are anti-parallel to each other. The beta sheet are stable structures that produces a very rigid, pleated structure; this is due to the beta sheet being stabilized by hydrogen bond being formed between the amino group on one polypeptide chain and the carboxyl group on the adjacent chain. The tertiary structure of a protein is the full three dimensional structure of the arrangements of atoms found within the polypeptide chain, this structure is the final geometric shape that protein assume and would be the highest level structure that a protein can attain, the structures include the alpha helix, beta sheets, random coils and also other structures such as loops and folds, which are formed between the N-terminus and the C-terminus. The tertiary structure is mainly stabilized by the formation of disulphide bonds, this is also known as a disulphide bridge because these bonds are formed by oxidation reaction of the side chains of cysteine, by oxidizing the two thiol groups (SH) which would form a disulphide bond (S-S) (fig 3). http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/images/563cysdisulfide.gif Fig 3: Shows the equation of an oxidation reaction in the tertiary structure to form a disulphide bridge (S-S), where a molecule of water is formed. The quaternary structure of a protein is the arrangements of many different types of coiled and folded polypeptides to form a unique functional protein and is stabilized by several non-covalent bonding, where some of these types of bonding are also found in tertiary structures, for example; hydrogen bonding, Van Der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions and also ionic interactions. These can occur if there is more than one polypeptide chain present in a complex protein.

Essay on Images of Africans in Things Fall Apart and Heart of Darkness

Images of Africans in Things Fall Apart and Heart of Darkness In my reading of Things Fall Apart, it has better informed me of a culture that I did not know of before, and by reading it helped correct some broad misconceptions that I previously held of the people and their cultures of Africa. Reading the novel also gave me another perspective on the effects of imperialism/colonialism by the Europeans on the Africans. I believe Achebe has succeeded in enabling the West an opportunity to have them "listen to the weak" (Achebe interview), but whether or not Western society decides to listen will come down to the individual within the society--if they do choose to listen to the call of the "weak." In this essay I will share realizations that I gained by reading Achebe's novel, and how I came to view the people of the Igbo and Africa and not so different as I had thought before. The distinct writing style that Achebe used to narrate his novel led me, as the reader, to feel as if I were a fellow tribesman of the Igbo people. This differing perspective, rather than being an outsider looking in on the people, led me to see that the Igbos are a people with strong beliefs, culture, and identity. An example of their identity is the description of one of their dwellings, more specifically of Okonkwo's compound; it is described as a "large compound enclosed by a thick wall of red earth" and we read further on about the barn for Okonkwo's yams and the shed for his goats (1429). The Igbo people are obviously agrarian, and led me to the question, how different are they from us? My answer is, there are not a lot of differenes. Based upon my experience--my father was raised on a farm--I see stark similarities between us and them... ...people of Umuofia could not have forecasted, with the exception of the oracle, that they would have fallen due to the white man and his religion, but I believe we can derive a couple of reasons why they fell and apply it to our own society. In conclusion, I really enjoyed Achebe's novel and liked the contrast between it and Conrad's work of Heart of Darkness. I believe there are times that, in order to see the extremes of something, you must contrast it to its opposite extreme. As a former moderate of beliefs on colonialism and those who proselytize their religion onto others, I realize now the dire impact those acts can have on a naive or vulnerable culture, and I now disagree with those practices. Finally, I heed the "call of the weak" for I hear the quiet but powerful voice that says, "We are a people too..." and I know the truth of the message!

Madonna Kolbenschlags Lost in the Land of Oz Essay -- Madonna Kolbens

Madonna Kolbenschlag's Lost in the Land of Oz "In "Lost in the Land of Oz", Madonna Kolbenschlag explores the way old societal myths, which are created from the metaphors in our life, are no longer useful in today's society. The author believes we need to embrace the ego archetype of the orphan, the most influential metaphor for the self, in order to become a whole and complete person. Madonna Kolbenschlag discusses how our society is particularly hostile towards women, resulting in an acute feeling of self-loathing, doubt, loneliness, and guilt. Today, women as the orphan feel a complete sense of powerlessness and abandonment, not only by everyone around her but also by God. Instead of suppressing our anxiety, Kolbenschlag advises that we should deal with it and remove the hidden layers of denial. We need to befriend the orphan within us and through all of this we will grasp a new insight and develop new spiritual consciousness. I feel the book is geared more towards women reclaiming their cultural and spiritual power. Chapter Four, "Women-Out of the Cave, Into the Desert," discusses this issue, including the modern problems facing women and some solutions. Today, women struggle to rediscover and reconcile their new societal roles with their feminine identity. In the book, Kolbenschlag uses Dorothy of the "Wizard of Oz" as the feminine model that must confront the psychological challenges along her path in order to reintegrate her true feminine self. (p.20) Women are orphaned in so many ways by our society, but through realizing certain truths can we befriend the orphan within us. Previously, Kolbenschlag felt that there were only two levels of feminine consciousness: those asleep and those who were awaking. (p.78) However, in today's society distinguishing these levels have become more complex. Through her "liberation index," she identifies the five levels of feminine awareness of modern times, which are innocence, denial, escape, defection, and deviance. Many young women are in the first stage of innocence because they have been sheltered from the realities of life, coming from a "picture perfect" life. Poor women are also in this stage because they believe that their reality is the only way of being for them. In the level of denial, women recognize their options, but feel that it is more beneficial for them to stay in their present state. On... ...d independence is another great dilemma that I think many women go through, especially those in professional arenas and takes many of them a long time to resolve the two. Growing up in a matriarchal family, my mother has always instilled through actions the need for a woman to be independent. She raised my sister and I alone and I have seen her struggle with this dilemma, when she remarried. As Kolbenschlag said, often dependency is equated to domination, which is not what most women want. I think that sometimes everyone wishes that they had someone that they could lean on, especially through trying times, but that doesn't mean they want that person to take over the situation. I also do not believe that for a woman to be considered "independent" she must give up her femininity and individuality. In my opinion a male-dominated society has no authority to dictate the characteristics of femininity to a woman. As a conscious, young man, I know that are many obstacles in the path of women, some involving race and others gender. I am a combination of many characteristics, values, and beliefs. While I do not think I am ready to befriend my inner orphan yet, I know one day I will be.

Rich Christians Living in a Poor World :: Free Essays

"Let them eat cake" -- Marie-Antoinette "The poor you will always have with you" -- Matthew 26:11 There is a difference in wealth between the north/south divide. The Rich north obtains nearly four fifths of the worlds income whereas the Poor South has only one fifth. The North is rich and the South is poverty-stricken. By the word "rich I mean in a material sense - the north has plenty of material and financial wealth whereas the South has very little. However, for many people in the south, being materially wealthy is not something they desire, and they are therefore spiritually rich. It is impossible for many in the Rich North to be spiritually rich "oh how hard it is for the rich to enter the kingdom of God". Although, if they were to share their riches with the poor (as the bible encourages them to do) then having money, when used for the benefit of others is a good thing. 'For the love of money is the root of all evil: which while some coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows.' Timothy 6:10. It is possible for world equality to be accomplished. The amount of money that requires appears a lot but when compared with the amount spent in HDC's on various things (such as cosmetics and ice cream) it appears to be a small amount. The following statistics are taken from the 1999 United Nations Human Development Report. Basic education, water and sanitation, and basic health and nutrition for every human on the planet would cost $28 billion. But that is $8 billion less than is spent on American cosmetics, ice cream in Europe and pet foods combined. It is thought by many that having no rich Christians while there is poverty in the world would be ridiculous. Having a certain number of rich Christians means that charities are able to operate. These charities help not only materially poor but spiritually poor to gain a better standard of life (before and after death.) If the Christians

D1 Business Environment

British Airways stakeholders. Those indivivals who have interest to BA operations are BA’s stakeholders, or any individuals whose action can affect BA’s operation can be stakeholders of British Airways. Stake holder can be either internal or external. Internal stakeholders: are those who are involved with business internally for example owners, shareholders, managers and employees. External Stakeholders: are those who are involved in business externally for example customers, suppliers, local community and government. Owner: Since BA is public Limited Company so it belongs to its share holders. More control goes to that individual who has big share in the company so share holder have a major influence in directing and managing the company as well selecting the board of directors who run the company and set the goals and strategic planes. Every share is marketed in stock exchange market so BA’s share ranges from small to big values. Therefore Shareholder wants their share to be valued higher and higher so, they can sell their shares in better prices if the company is in better economical condition. Shareholders and owners can facilitate and bring more high quality services by putting more money in the company; buying fuel efficient Air planes, investing in high tech technology, employing experienced and qualified managers can bring development in overall functionality of BA. In addition to this, ordering planes like dream liner Boeing 787 by owners of BA would attract and bring glory and reputation to BA. Furthermore investing on fuel efficient planes, on one hand has profit to environment and on the other hand it reduces the expenses of fuel and consequently fares will go down by 20 % as result there will be more customers and more profit to the company and its shareholders. Moreover every measure in which there is intention either to upgrade the company or to down grade the company has its massive impact on the overall function of business by owners. BA owners can select a hard working, honest and reliable directors on the annual general meeting so having an experienced and full of energy board of director can bring a prosperity and achievement to the company as chief executive of BA, Willie Walsh, told the Tories they would make a big mistake if blocking the third runway, we can see that a chief executive is arguing and want to win the argument in will of BA. Employees: are those who are internally and in some extent externally associated with BA. Because we say externally, that local community some time supply the employees of a company. Employees like managers, pilots, flight attendants, IT workers, engineers and etc need a better working condition, secure jobs, suitable salaries, friendly environment from BA. In addition to this employees should be valued by the BA in order to get best result from them. But in return the employees should be hard working, enthusiastic, and polite with the customers, dedicated, committed and looking after BA’s prosperity and well being. If the BA is prosperous and rich they will receive good rewards and salaries. If the BA is not doing well in the term of service which being offered to its customers as a result the company going to lose its fame and credibility and will not be able to support itself and its employees. AS we saw last year, that as result of industrial action by cabin crew which was supported by trade union made a loss of ? 510 million to the BA to which BA . n the other hand employees should be committed , dedicated and they must try their best to follow those rules in which BA’s objectives are set . additionally employees play a major role in progression of the day to day operation of the company by being committed and enthusiastic in what they are employed to . Having hard working and dedicated employees will take the BA toward the success and prosperity in contrast lazy and time killing employee will make losses not only for company but also for himself. So having dedicated employees can going to change the company’s reputation and the way how it develops toward a better condition for example the cabin crew industrial action was taken and made a big loss to BA , if they had not taken that action the BA would not have made that much loss as result of action . Customers: are external stakeholders of the BA, they play a big role by paying to receive services from BA. They want quality services, high standard and effective performance and they wants to be valued by the BA employees during the services being provided by BA. Furthermore customer needs reasonable prices along with quality and effective services, because the British people are so critic and fault finder of services which is being provide by companies. The customer feedback is very important to BA , it should be considered critically regarding the quality of food, quality of services during a flight . The way stewards are behaving with passengers all hese affaires going to be feed backed by the customers as result of all this if the company give a quality and effective services according to customers wish and will so the customers will be again and again with BA ,if the services are poor and short of quality and effectiveness so they will never return to BA any more . as we can see and assess that all BA’s revenues come from its customers through services ranging from cargo to i ndividuals which is being transferred therefore the customers are integral and base part of BA’s stakeholders . I am a regular and multi traveller with Qatar Airways as I have seen high quality hospitality and services during the flights beside cheap prices that every time they give me offers . consequently I am a regular and potential customer of Qatar Airways so in the same way every single customer needs and wants same like me, cheap price and good services. Every action and feedback of the customers going to change the way and performance of the company. The more customers are happy the more money and prosperity going to come to BA, so every action of the customers have its considerable effect on the business. Happy customers mean good business and more profit distressed and unsatisfied customers mean that the company is not doing well it should reconsider about its operation and performance. Suppliers: Can be external stakeholders who provide what the company needs for its routine operation. Suppliers play an impressive role in overall performance of BA operation by providing Planes on which passengers being carried to tissues which are being used to clean and wipe onboard. All of these materials are being supplied and procured by suppliers along with coordination and procurement of BA. As BA has saying that every year a total of ? 5. 2 billion is purchased goods and services from its suppliers. BA is determined to make a stronger relationship with its supplier as well as compromise with them on the payment and trade credit. The more time for trade credit is prolonged the more BA is convenient and determined to pay its supplier enough cash. As BA ‘s CEO said in the chartered institute of purchasing and supply in London â€Å" Close co-operation between British Airways and its key suppliers will be vital in helping the airline to weather the economic storm. He emphasized on finding the new opportunity to seek cost reduction and cost efficiency ways with suppliers. As, BA has introduced some tough measures to its strategic suppliers in recent economic downturn. Now BA and its suppliers are supporting each other by introducing cost efficiency and price reduction scheme , but there would be no change in services ,which BA provide for the people . BA and its suppl ier have come to a term on how to eliminate wastes, improve efficiency and ways to find how to run business smoothly by coordinating within suppliers and BA. The major suppliers who supply the fuel, engines have pledged to reconsider about tier prices in the tough economic recession and its good news for BA. Now a day BA is looking for other alternative fuel like bio fuels with engine suppliers but predicted slow progress. Suppliers need prompt payment as long as there logistical package is delivered or services provided and they want extended contracts and new offer. In addition giving value for supplier might bring more coherence relation between BT and its suppliers. Trade Union: is an organization which supports the employees in terms of better working condition, hiring, firing, payments through bargaining by its leadership on behalf of employees by employers. In UK trade unions supply the workforce, skilled and qualified individuals to companies. For example the pilots, stewards ,engineers and other staff who are necessary for operation of BA is being provided and introduced by Trade Unions , so whatever comes to BA employees in term of salaries , working hours ,firing ,redundancies, job cuts and pensions Trade unions will take decision against BA’s action regarding the employees. Trade unions made an election on which to find that who is going to vote for industrial action and who going to vote for strike, in long and puzzling negotiation between cabin crew, Trade Unions and BA officials finally they voted for a strike . As Consequence the BA revealed a steep loss for the April to June quarter after being hit by cabin crew strikes. Additionally the greatest losses come to BA as result of industrial action which was taken by staff. Finally the figures put the amount of money which BA has incurred as result of strikes and industrial actions cost it ? 44-191 million. For all this reasons Trade Unions has its own influence over the function and operation of the BA business as stakeholder. The above issues which happened on the verge of Ester brought some bad reputation for BA as well as lost some of its credibility among the people who would book for holidays, so BA would have suffered having lost its customers to rival carriers beside being hardly hit by loss of millions as result of strikes and actions by Unions. Government: is an important external stakeholder of BA whose actions and decisions will bring some changes, which will be very useful but some time it can be very destructive for the BA and other companies as well. For instance putting flight bans on UK’s territory as result of ash cloud in which BA incurred an amount of ? 50 million each day. As result even The British Pilot Association called on the government to give a banking system bail out for the BA Company which is in verge of recovery from recession. 50 million loss a day had destructive impact on the economy of BA as result of government decision putting ban on domestic as well as international flights as due to ash clouds from Icelandic volcano on 2010. On July of 2007 BA had struggle with government over single-bag rule which put in place to prevent passengers especially those who wanted to land in Heathrow as transit passenger from carrying more than one bag which was very unfavourable and disliked by many passeng er and made unattractive Heathrow airport for many visitors . As a result the head of BA and its shareholder in AGM criticised the government policy which was a hinder over the way of BA and reduced the number of the passenger and visitor as result. UK government wants a blooming and blooming BA so that to be able to survive, develop and employ more people, pay taxes and carry the flag of the UK to all over the world. Having a successful and flourish BA going to contribute economically to government and gentle governments economical policy will be in favour of BA. Local communities: are the external stakeholders as well as internal because the employees can be local community . ocal community play a major role in the function and operation of a business. Local community supply the business with labour force and some time local community support the businesses in tough times but some time there have been rows and disputes between local community and businesses, as it has been running since a long time between BA and those who are opposing agains t building of third runway in Heathrow. The groups who are against the third runway are Local community, naked bike riders, and NO TRAGE and green energy supporters. The Labour government wanted the third runway to be constructed to boost the economy by accommodating more flights and attracting more transit flights which are crossing Atlantic for American countries. All anti runway campaigners has been supported by local residents who were under flight path and more vulnerable to the consequences from flights. There is more flights in the London sky people doing want their sky criss-crossed by aircrafts and they say there was nearly a plane collision over the Londoners and human disaster and mid-air collision would have caused carnage in the capital. Even Willie Walsh BA’s CEO attacked on the Tories blaming them that they would make their biggest ever mistake by not allowing the third runway to be build but Tories opposed against the third runway as well and saying that the third runway is a horrendous price for the environment. Even though Walsh explained that major businesses like to be connected more efficiently but his opinion was reused by the Tories. As we can see that Local Community has more influence on the business For Example Extraction of third runway by BA and labour government was opposed by Local residents as well as other groups in order to have a good climate and environment. So if the local community had allowed the BA or BBA to build another runway there would have been more flights, more jobs for jobs for the people , more planes would have been ordered for suppliers , more planes would have landed and more and more profit would have gone to BA so in this case BA would have paid more taxes . But Local community along other groups opposed the scheme and no one made the runway there is no job, no flights and no money ,but in return people have nice environment they enjoy living in the vicinity of airport and no longer have fear of bad environment and plane crashes. BY supporting no to third runway campaigners Tories won the attracted more supporter from people who were against the theory.

Underage Binge Drinking In UK Health And Social Care Essay

The intent of this survey is for the author to research the authorities schemes in battling the lifting rates of minor orgy imbibing in the UK. The author will near this subject by briefly analyzing the prevalence, determiners, and effects of minor orgy imbibing. The author will besides critically analyse spreads in authorities schemes in undertaking minor imbibing and later explicate a policy intercession that would turn to the spreads highlighted. Ethical consideration of the policy intercession will besides be explored, and later contemplation and decision will shut the survey. There is no cosmopolitan definition of orgy imbibing, but it is frequently described as a form of inordinate consumption of intoxicant over a short period of clip ( Home Office Findings ( HOFs ) , 2005 ) . Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology ( POST ) ( 2005 ) expands this definition farther as such behavior that leads to a rapid addition in blood intoxicant concentration and accordingly to drunkenness. However, the author believes that orgy imbibing occurs when people have no bound of their intoxicant consumption within a short period ensuing in exposing themselves or/and other people to put on the line. Underage orgy imbibing continues to increase in the UK, although the figure of immature people aged 11 to 15 who drink intoxicant has fallen since 2001 ( National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , 2007 ) . However, those that drink intoxicant continue to imbibe more and more frequently ( HM Government, 2007 In NICE, 2007 ) . Harmonizing to HOFs ( 2006 ) , the nature of offenses among elderly 10 to 17 during or after imbibing was associated with frequence of imbibing. Those that drink one time a hebdomad or more reported acquiring involved in statements ( 48 % ) , battles ( 19 % ) and condemnable harm offenses ( 12 % ) during or after imbibing compared to those that drink between one and three times a month ( 16 % , 6 % and 4 % severally ) . Another survey undertaken by The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs ( ESPAD ) has examined imbibing among representative samples of elderly 15 and 16 in the UK. In 2003 survey, UK was ranked as the 3rd most adolescent orgy drinkers out of 35 European states ( Hibell et al. , 2004 ) . There are some effects of teenage orgy imbibing, and one of this is medical consequence. Binge imbibing causes encephalon harm that destroys the encephalon cells and grounds suggests that adolescent orgy drinkers are likely to see impaired memory and concluding accomplishments ( Institute of Alcohol Studies ( IAS ) , 2007 ) . Alcohol toxic condition is another common medical status among immature orgy drinkers. The hazard of cardiovascular, high blood pressure, shots, bosom diseases, psychological jobs, chest and unwritten malignant neoplastic diseases are ulterior effects of teenage imbibing on maturity ( IAS, 2007 ) . One of the economic deductions of orgy imbibing is the cost to the NHS, it is estimated that the cost of intoxicant injury to the NHS in England is ?2.7 billion ( 2006/07 ) as compared to ?1.7 billion in 2001/02 monetary values ( The Health and Social Care Information Centre ( THSCIC ) , 2009 ) . Other effects of minor orgy imbibing consequence in intoxicant related accidents. For illustration, in 2007, 6,541 deceases in England were straight related to alcohol ingestion and this has increased by 19 % between 2001 and 2007 ( THSCIC, 2009 ) . Besides, orgy imbibing consequences in insecure behavior such as sexual activities and other illicit drug usage, which is more outstanding with immature orgy drinkers ( IAS, 2007 ) .Determinants OF UNDERAGE BINGE DrinkingDahlgren and Whitehead ( 1991 ) ( see appendix ) formulated a utile model to intensively research the determiners of wellness. It is argued that public wellness is non chiefly the absence of diseases ( World Health Organisation ( WHO ) , 1948 ) but to advance ways of protracting people ‘s lives ( Acheson, 1988 ) through the complex interactions between societal and economic factors, the physical environment and single behavior every bit good as fixed factors such as age, sex and hereditary. The extremum of teenage orgy imbibing age seems to happen around elderly 15 and supra. HOFs ( 2006 ) reported that kids aged 16 to 17 reported holding had alcoholic drink in the old 12 months. This study shows the highest intoxicant ingestion ( 88 % ) between the age bracket as compared to kids aged 10 to 13 that have the lowest ( 29 % ) . Conversely, kids aged 15 to 16 were used in ESPAD ‘s survey, which shows high rate of underage orgy imbibing in the UK among these age bracket ( Hibell et al. , 2004 ) . HOFs ( 2005 ) reported that immature males are likely to gorge drink ( 49 % ) than immature females ( 39 % ) . However, Hibell et Al. ( 2004 ) argued that UK imbibing civilization seems to be switching from immature males devouring intoxicant far more than immature females because figures show that in the UK, Ireland and Isle of Man, adolescent misss are more likely than teenage male childs to hold consumed intoxicant in orgies ( Velleman, 2009 ) . Griffith ( 2000 ) suggested that imbibing has been reported as being portion of British imbibing civilization for coevalss. Plant and works ( 2006 ) argued that most people in the UK drink alcoholic drinks and the negative effects of this imbibing are clearly a large job. The imbibing forms are extremely influenced by national civilization ( Velleman, 2009 ) . For illustration, in Mediterranean civilization, immature people are most likely to imbibe and imbibe more frequently and ne'er caused public inebriation ( Velleman, 2009 ) whereas in northern European, imbibing is characterised by inordinate imbibing but less frequent and heavier when it does happen ( IAS, 2007 ) . Parental influence was critically explored by Velleman et Al. ( 2005 ) of which household construction was one of the countries where households can act upon their bush leagues ‘ substance use behavior. Hellandsjo Bu et Al. ( 2002 ) stated that kids imbibing at a younger age from single-parent households have limited household support. Steinberg et Al. ( 1994 ) argued that non-separated parents who expect a batch from their kids and supply a sense of self-efficacy tend to hold kids who are less likely to be misapplying intoxicant. Environmental factor such as advertizement ( direct and indirect ) is another factor act uponing minor orgy imbibing. Anderson & A ; Baumberg ( 2006 ) and Hastings ( 2007 ) have suggested in their reappraisal that intoxicant advertisement and selling are important factors in the rise in intoxicant ingestion by immature people. In contrast, intoxicant and advertisement industries argued that as the alcoholic drink is a legal merchandise it should be lawfully possible for it to be advertised ( IAS, 2008 ) . Other determiners are the influence of equal force per unit area ( Velleman, 2009 ) and socio-economic factors ( Measham, 1996 ) every bit good as single factors ( Ryan, 2005 In IAS, 2007 ) such as unprompted personality traits, populating off from place and to greater richness, and increase in orgy imbibing for those who have weak wellness beliefs.Current GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES AND BINGE DrinkingThe four states that constitute UK responded to ways in which lifting rate of orgy imbibing could be controlled. In England, authorities published a policy papers in 2004 on Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy for England ( Cabinet Office Prime Minister ‘s Strategy Unit, 2004 ) . This scheme sets out to turn to better instruction and communicating to accomplish a long term alteration in attitudes to irresponsible imbibing. It besides focuses on better wellness and intervention systems to better early designation and intervention of intoxicant jobs every bit good as to battle intoxicant rela ted offense and working with the intoxicant industry to construct on the good pattern of bing enterprises and develop new 1s. Finally, the new licensing jurisprudence that allows 24 hr entree to intoxicant was introduced by the authorities in November 2005 ( Department for Culture, Media & A ; Sport, 2005 ) . The authorities step to undertake orgy imbibing focuses on injury minimization but failed to turn to the handiness of intoxicant through its 24 hr licensing jurisprudence and affordability ( POST, 2005 ) . The current licensing jurisprudence harmonizing to the authorities tends to cut down the pattern of stashing intoxicant merely before the shutting hours and besides cut downing the Numberss of people hotfooting into the street to buy intoxicant. The Royal College of Physician ( RCP ) strongly disagreed with authorities policy on its 24 hr licensing jurisprudence. It was suggested that this will increase the overall ingestion of intoxicant and will hold public wellness deductions ( POST, 2005 ) . Government argued that its intoxicant licensing jurisprudence will cut down offense and anti-social behavior and promote a alteration in UK imbibing civilization ( POST, 2005 ) . Following the grounds presented above about the effect of orgy imbibing in the UK, it is clear that more dependa ble and grounds based solutions need to be put in topographic point because the authorities is trusting to control intoxicant related offense instead than seting scheme that would control the overall ingestion of intoxicant in order to safeguard the wellness of the people in general. The authorities policy on intoxicant seems to belie the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion ( OCHP ) which suggests that all public policies should be examined for its impact on wellness ( WHO, 1986 ) which seems to hold been overlooked by the authorities. Furthermore, the Numberss of people sing intoxicant related injury continue to increase in the UK. For illustration, the Numberss of people deceasing from alcoholic liver diseases are increasing in England and Wales ( HM Government, 2007 In NICE, 2007 ) . The author feels that if the scheme to control the overall ingestion of intoxicant could be put in topographic point, it will certainly advance what the authorities is trusting to accomplish. Peoples should be entitled to good wellness and what orgy imbibing is doing in the UK is beliing what a good wellness should be. WHO ( 1948 ) defines wellness as a province of complete physical, mental and societal wellbeing but non needfully absence of disease. Alma-Ata declaration argued that people should hold entree to healthcare at a cost that is low-cost and people going the ownership of their attention ( WHO, 1978 ) . It besides argued that wellness should be a cardinal human right and non a privilege. The authorities ‘s scheme on orgy imbibing seems to miss public wellness benefits as it contradicts Alma-Ata declaration of what a good wellness should be for the people.POLICY INTERVENTIONHarmonizing to Stevenson et Al. ( 2002, p.533 ) policy is ‘a class of action adopted or proposed by an organisation or individual ‘ . However, the author argued that a policy is a set of regulation or guideline that is specifically drafted for a peculiar intent for an person, administration or state to follow. The author will therefore focal point on beef uping the current authorities scheme as this scheme appears non to be battling adolescent orgy imbibing in the UK. The author aims to suggest a policy to cut down 24 hours entree to alcohol ( licencing jurisprudence ) to a restricted clip graduated table and to increase intoxicant revenue enhancements as ways of pull offing the handiness of intoxicant and to cut down early intoxicant imbibing. These thoughts are good supported by RCP, British Medical Association, and Academy of Medical Sciences ( POST, 2005 ) . Presently in the UK, the legal imbibing age is 18 old ages ( Office of communications, 2004 ) and the author is suggesting that the age should be increased to 21 in order to cut down teenage imbibing at early age and its associated injury. There has been a argument in the Australian media proposing increasing the legal age of intoxicant ingestion from 18 to 21 old ages ( Toumbourou, et Al. 2008 ) . Several surveies conducted in the yesteryear suggested that raising the age would cut down striplings ‘ entree to alcohol and subsequent associated injuries ( Grube, 1997 ; Ludbrook et al. , 2002 ) . Lowering the legal imbibing age from 20 to 18 in New Zealand is reported to hold resulted in a crisp addition in teenage and grownups binge imbibing ( Everitt & A ; Jones, 2002 ) . The author feels that if this attack is embraced, it will curtail entree to alcohol among elderly 18 to 21 which will partially cut down rate of imbibing. However, this action on its ain will non decide the or gy imbibing and all its associated injury. NICE ( 2007 ) produces public wellness guidelines on reasonable intoxicant ingestion for usage in primary and secondary schools in order to undertake the imbibing job among the immature people. The policy besides sets to supply support for intoxicant imbibing parents. It appears that authorities is seeking their best to control the lifting rate of underage imbibing in the UK. However, the author feels that sophisticated intoxicant consciousness programmes should be made available to the parents through their General Practitioners ( GPs ) . There is no modus operandi on intoxicant consciousness programme for the parents through their GPs and what appears to be available through the GP is to offer support when intoxicant is going or had become a job. There is a demand for everyday based intoxicant consciousness for the imbibing parents in all the GP surgeries. This thought is good supported by OCHP which focuses on assisting people develop their accomplishments in order to be in contro l of their lives and have more power in determinations that affect them ( WHO, 1986 ) . In making this, parents will be able to give advise on intoxicant imbibing as they will take by illustration by non imbibing or carrying intoxicant drinks in the house. Evidence shows that parents are likely to act upon their kids through their imbibing behavior ( Bandura 1977, In Velleman, 2009 ) . The author is besides suggesting that all alcohol related adverts ( direct or indirect ) should be ban in the UK because a recent reappraisal of seven international research surveies revealed that there is a correlativity between anterior intoxicant advertisement and selling exposure and subsequent intoxicant imbibing behavior in immature people ( Smith & A ; Foxcroft, 2007 ) . Taking actions on intoxicant advertizement in order to safeguard the hereafter of bush leagues are good supported by WHO ‘s European Charter on intoxicant. It addresses the European states to take action on intoxicant advertizement of which forbiddance was portion of the recommendations that were highlighted ( IAS, 2008 ) . However, the author is cognizant that this attack might non be in favor of the UK economic system because alcohol investors may go forth or non put in such state where publicity of their intoxicant merchandise can non be advertised. The author believes that overall wellness of the peo ple should outweigh such economic job. Last, the author is suggesting that a step such as presenting a national individuality card for its citizens with a position that this card will be used at the point of intoxicant purchase in order to maintain a record of authorities recommended ( THSCIC, 2009 ) daily alcohol consumption ( 3-4 and 2-3 units for work forces and adult females severally ) for an person who uses his/her card. This proposal will be monitored in relation to daily intoxicants intake should people get down to stash intoxicant. This proposal will besides restrict intoxicant entree to the bush leagues as grounds suggests they still have entree to alcohol despite authorities policy ( HOFs, 2006 ) .Ethical CONSIDERATIONThis survey considers the four widely accepted ethical rules ( Beauchamp & A ; Childress, 1995 ) which are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justness. This survey will promote the minor people to do picks based on the information provided. The right information will be passed to them and will be allowed to do their informed determinations. The survey is besides constructed in a manner that is good to minor people, household and society at big. The confidentiality and regard of the people will be maintained. Last, the author will guarantee that people are treated reasonably and the resources will be shared every bit among those that need support.ContemplationMy apprehension of public wellness and application of theory into pattern has developed to a considerable degree during the class of this survey. This survey seems to be complex and necessitating in-depth cognition and apprehension of public wellness pattern. With equal homos and material resources obtained, I was able to bring out troubles that were ab initio apparent. This survey has given acceptance to the spreads that sometimes occur in authorities scheme to battle a job. I am cognizant that for an issue such as minor orgy imbibing to be revisited on the public docket, there may be a demand to recommend and intercede between different involvements for the chase of wellness of the people in the society. Such manner is achieved through media, advertisement to raise public consciousness, personal entreaties by public functionaries and famous persons and many other attacks ( Pencheon et al. , 2006 ) . Although this is non a warrant that such issues will derive public docket but it is suggested that public sentiment has its greatest impact on authorities decision-making when people feel strongly and clearly about a job ( Pencheon et al. , 2006 ) .DecisionThis survey has attempted to research the lifting rate of underage orgy imbibing by critically measuring the authorities steps in undertaking the job, with raised and explored policy intercessions in order to turn to spreads in authorities scheme. It is hoped that the policy intercessions would turn to the overall intoxicant ingestion instead than aiming merely the intoxicant orgy drinkers.MentionsAcheson, D. ( 1988 ) . Public Health in England. London: HMSO. Anderson, P. & A ; Baumberg, B. ( 2006 ) Alcohol in Europe, a public wellness position: A study for the European Commission. London: Institute of Alcohol Studies Bandura, A. ( 1977 ) . Cited In: Velleman, R. erectile dysfunction. Influence on how kids and immature people learn about and act towards intoxicant. A reappraisal of the literature for the literature for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation ( portion one ) . York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 12th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drugsandalcohol.ie/12563/1/JRF_children-alcohol-use-partone_2009.pdf Beauchamp, T. L. & A ; Childress, J. F. ( 1995 ) . Principles of biomedical moralss. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cabinet Office Prime Minister ‘s Strategy ( 2004 ) . The Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy for England. London: Cabinet Office. Dahlgren, G & A ; Whitehead, M ( 1991 ) . Policies and schemes to advance societal equity in wellness ( Roneo ) . Capital of sweden: Institute for Future Studies. Department for Culture, Media & A ; Sport ( 2005 ) New Licensing Laws Come into Effect at Midnight Tonight. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 26th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/3023.aspx Everitt, R. & A ; Jones, P. ( 2002 ) . Changing the minimal legal imbibing age.its consequence on a cardinal metropolis exigency section. New Zealand Medical Journal 115 ( 25 ) , pp. 9-11 Grube, J. ( 1997 ) . Preventing gross revenues of intoxicant to bush leagues. Consequences from a community test. Addiction 92 ( 2 ) , pp.251-260. Hastings, G. ( 2007 ) Social marketing.why should the Satans have all the best melodies? London: Butterworth-Heinemann Hellandsjo Bu, E. T. , Watten, R. G. , Foxcroft, D. R. , Ingebrigtsen, J. E. & A ; Relling, G. ( 2002 ) . Teenage intoxicant and poisoning introduction: the impact of household socialisation factors, populating country and engagement in organized athleticss. Alcohol and Alcoholism 37, pp.74-80 Hibell, B. , Andersson, B. , Bjarnason, T. , Ahlstrom, S. , Balakireva, O. , Kokkevi, A. and Morgan, M. ( 2004 ) . The ESPAD Report 2003. Alcohol and other Drug usage among Students in 35 European Countries. Capital of sweden: Swidish Council for Information on Alcohol and other Drugs. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 12th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sedqa.gov.mt/pdf/information/reports_intl_espad2003.pdf HM Government ( 2007 ) . Cited In: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. erectile dysfunction. Interventions in schools to forestall and cut down intoxicant usage among kids and immature people. [ Online ] . Retrived on 20th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nice.org.uk/PH007 Home Office Findings ( 2005 ) . Findingss from the 2003 Offending, Crime and Justice Survey. alcohol-related offense and upset. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 15th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/r261.pdf Home Office Findings ( 2006 ) Underage imbibing: findings from the 2004 Offending, Crime and Justice Survey. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 15th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/r277.pdf Institute of Alcohol Studies ( 2007 ) . Binge Drinking. Medical and Social Consequences. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 10th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ias.org.uk/resources/factsheets/binge_drinkingmed.pdf Institute of Alcohol Studies ( 2008 ) . Alcohol & A ; Advertising. IAS Factsheet. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 13th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ias.org.uk/resources/factsheets/advertising.pdf Ludbrook, A. , Godfrey, C. , Wyness, L. , Parrot, S. , Haw, S. , Napper, M. & A ; Teijlingen, V. ( 2002 ) . Effective and cost effectual steps to cut down intoxicant abuse in Scotland. A literature reappraisal. Scotland: University of York. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 20th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scotland.gov.uk/health/alcoholproblems/docs/lire-00.asp Measham, F. ( 1996 ) . The â€Å" large knock † attack to sessional imbibing. altering forms of intoxicant ingestion among immature people in North West England. Addiction Research 4 ( 3 ) , pp.283-299 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( 2007 ) Interventions in schools to forestall and cut down intoxicant usage among kids and immature people. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 20th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nice.org.uk/PH007 Office of Communications ( 2004 ) . Final revised alcohol advertisement regulations. London: Ofcom. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 2nd January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ofcom.org.uk/consult/condocs/AlcAds/decision/rules.pdf Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology ( 2005 ) Postnote. Binge Drinking and Public Health. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 2nd January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/postpn244.pdf Pencheon, D. , Guest, C. , Melzer, D. & A ; Gray, J. A. M. ( eds. ) . ( 2006 ) . Oxford Handbook of Public Health Practice. 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Plant, M. & A ; Plant, M. ( 2006 ) . Binge Britain. Alcohol and the National Response. New York: Oxford University Press. Ryan, F. ( 2005 ) . Cited In: Institute of Alcohol Studies. erectile dysfunction. Binge Drinking – Nature, Prevalence and Causes. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 10th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ias.org.uk/resources/factsheets/binge_drinking.pdf Smith, L. A & A ; Foxcroft, D. R. ( 2007 ) . The consequence of intoxicant advertisement and selling on imbibing behavior in immature people. A systematic reappraisal. London: Alcohol Education and Research Council. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 10th January 2010 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aerc.org.uk/documents/pdfs/finalReports/AERC_FinalReport_0040.pdf Steinberg, L. , Fletcher, A. & A ; Darling, N. ( 1994 ) . Parental monitoring and equal influences on stripling substance usage. Pediatricss 93 ( 6 pt 2 ) , 1060-1064 Stevenson, A. ( ed. ) , Elliott, J. ( ed. ) , Jones, R. ( ed. ) . ( 2002 ) . 2nd erectile dysfunction. Colour Oxford English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press. The Health and Social Care Information Centre. ( 2009 ) . NHS. The Information Centre. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 30th November 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ic.nhs.uk/webfiles/publications/alcoholeng2009/Final % 20Format % 20draft % 202009 % 20v7.pdf Toumbourou, J. , Moodie, R. , Eyre, J. & A ; Harper, T. ( 2008 ) . Set boundaries, set an illustration. Australia: Fairfax. Velleman, R. ( 2009 ) . Influence on how kids and immature people learn about and act towards intoxicant. A reappraisal of the literature for the literature for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation ( portion one ) . York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 12th December 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drugsandalcohol.ie/12563/1/JRF_children-alcohol-use-partone_2009.pdf Velleman, R. , Templeton, L. & A ; Copello, A. ( 2005 ) . The function of the household in preventing and step ining with substance usage and abuse. A comprehensive reappraisal of household intercessions with a focal point on immature people. Drug & A ; Alcohol Review 24, pp.93-109 World Health Organisation ( 1948 ) . WHO definition for wellness. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 10th January 2010. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html World Health Organisation ( 1978 ) . Alma-Ata declaration. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 11th November 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/declaration_almaata.pdf World Health Organisation ( 1986 ) . The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. [ Online ] . Retrieved on 11th November 2009 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/ottawa_charter_hp.pdf

Apush Textbook Notes

Shaping of North America – Pangea Split North America formed – â€Å"America’s Mountains† = Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, Coast Ranges Peopling the Americas – 35,000 years ago = Ice Age Glaciers that connected Eurasia with N. America (present day Bering Sea) Nomadic Asian hunters (immigrant ancestors of the Natives) Trekked across the Bering isthmus for 250 centuries Reached far tip of S. America (15,000 miles from Siberia) By the time Europeans arrived in 1492, 54 million people inhabited the two Am. Continents Incas in PeruMayans in Central America Aztecs in Mexico – Four Great Nations (Natives, before colonists) Aztecs Maya Inca Cahokia – Maize = Indian corn – Built elaborate cities and carried on far-flung commerce – Mathematicians (made accurate astronomical observations) – Aztecs Sought the favor of their gods by offering human sacrifices (over 5,000 people ritually slaughtered for crowning of ONE chiefta in) The Earliest Americans – Agriculture Corn growing Accounted for size and sophistication of Na. A. in Mexico and S. A. 000 BC, hunter-gatherers in highland Mexico developed wild grass into the staple crop of corn – Became staff of life and foundation of complex, large-scare, centralized Aztec and Incan nation-states that eventually emerged Process went slowly and unevenly Corn planting reached American Southwest by 1200 BC – Pueblo people (Rio Grande valley) constructed irrigation systems to water their cornfields.Dwelled in villages of multistory buildings. – No dense concentrations of population or complex nation states comparable to the Aztec empire existed in N. Am. outside of Mexico when the Europeans arrived. Mound Builders (Ohio River valley), Anasazi (Southwest) sustained large settlements after incorporating corn planting. – Cultivation of MAIZE, BEANS, SQUASH – â€Å"Three-Sister† Farming: Beans growing on trellis of corn stalks and squash covering the planting mounds to retain moisture in the soil – Highest population densities: Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee – Natives in N. Am. lived in small, scattered, impermanent settlements – Women tended to crops, Men hunted, fished, gathered fuel and cleared fields for planting – Iroquois Developed matrilinear cultures, power and possessions passed down the female side of the family line.Natives didn’t want to manipulate nature aggressively – Revered physical world and endowed nature with spiritual properties Indirect Discoverers of the New World – Norse seafarers from Scandinavia had chanced upon the northeastern shoulder of N. Am. AD 1000. – Landed near present day Newfoundland Lots of grapes – Named Vinland Forgotten except for in song Europeans Enter Africa – Marco Polo (Italian adventurer) returned to Europe 1295, telling tales about China – Portuguese Columbus Comes upon a New World – Oct 12, 1492 = Sighted island in Bahamas – Discovery convulsed four continents Europe AfricaTwo Americas – Global economic system When Worlds Collide – Columbus Exchange â€Å"Discovered† America Old New: Wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, cows, pigs, smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, scarlet fever, slave labor New Old: Gold, silver, corn, potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, syphilis New race Hispanic/Latino The Spanish Conquistadores – 1500s God, glory, GOLD. Encomienda Any Spaniard with a farm or a mine can force natives to work for them – 1512: New laws of Spain (to address the above about Encomienda) – Europe + Africa + AmericasElizabeth Energizes England Francis Crake was a sea dog of Queen Elizabeth Sir Walter Raleigh organized a trip in 1585 in North Carolina’s Roanoke Island to try to colonized it England on the Eve of Empire 27-28: enclosing [enc losure]; tenancy; joint-stock companies since only the eldest son of the family could inherit, the others wuld look for fortune somewhere else the men joined joint stock exchange companies where they pooled together their finances England Plants the Jamestown Seedling Virginia Company; ‘rights of Englishmen’Received charter form Kind James I for a settlement in the New World Mainly for gold and passage to the Indies Guaranteed to overseas settlers the same rights of English men Even if their not in the country This would be the start of resentment from colonists before the revolution because of lack of rights of Englishmen 1606 2 ships landed near Chesapeake Bay May 24, 1607 Jamestown was founded After many voyages to Jamestown Many of the colonists were unaccustomed to fending for themselves and also wasted time looking for gold John Smith; Powhatan John SmithYoung adventure took control of Jamestown in 1608 His rule was : â€Å"he who shall not work shall not ear In December1607 he was kidnapped by Powhatan and subjected to a mock execution Pocahontas saved him by putting her head on top of his Symbolism was to impress Smith with Powhatans power and Indians desire for peaceful relations with the colonist Pocahontas was a intermediary between the 2 side to preserve shaky peace and provide for foodstuff ‘starving time’=winter People would eat dogs, cats, mice, corpses, one man even murdered his wife and ate her Only 60 settlers survived 609-1610 Pocahontas married John Rolfe and ended the First Anglo-Powhatan War in 1614 The Second Anglo-Powhatan War in 1644 defeated the VirginiansVirginia: Child of Tobacco Economy ‘built on tobacco’ John Rolfe became the â€Å"father of tobacco† and saved the economy of Virginia 1612 he perfected the methods of raising and curing weeds The Virginians were so concentrated planting tobacco that they had to important some of their food It ruined the soil 1619 (year before pilgrims c ame on the Mayflower)a Dutch ship came and sold 20 Africans House of Burgesses epresentative self government born in Virginia in 1619 London Company authorized settlers to summon an assembly known as House of Burgesses Royal Colony (what went wrong? ) **1624, James I(detested tobacco and he distrusted the House of Burgesses) revoked charter of the bankrupt Virginia Company, making Virginia a royal colony under his control Maryland: Catholic Haven Lord Baltimore; Maryland 2nd plantation colony was founded in 1624 by Lord Baltimore who is of a prominent English Catholic family(4th colony to be planted) he created Maryland as refuge for his fellow CatholicsThe Catholics were rewarded with great manors and land Source(s) of tension between Catholics and Protestants? The Catholic were barons while the Protestants were planters There was resentment which then brewed into the rebellion near the end of the century Maryland prospered because of the tobacco In fear of being overwhelmed by the Catholics, they supported the Act of Toleration in 1649 Toleration of Christians Bad for Jews, atheists ‘freedom of worship’ (how tolerant? Limits? ) Dominion- Many colonies, forced upon them New England Confederation -4 colonies, joined willinglyColonzing the Carolinas Carolina was founded un 1670s Rice was main export North Carolina separated from South Carolin in 1712 Most independent minded and least aristocratic of the 13 Late Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony last of the 13 Georgia was to serve as abuffer Protected the valuable Carolinas (sugar/rice) from Spaniards (FL) and French (LA) Name after George II Founded by high minded group of philanthropists Produced silk/wine Haven for sould imprisioned for depts. Plantation Colonies Note characteristics: Southern ColoniesMaryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia They were devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products Tobacco and rice Wide scattered plantations made building schools and churches expensive and difficult Most except for some in NC and GA perfered aristocratic atmospheres All permitted relisious toleration sometax supported Church of England Relied on indentured servants/slaves later on First slaves were not Africans, they were Native Americans Constructed on rivers, easily transported * â€Å"God hath sifted a nation that he might send Choice Grain into this Wilderness† — what does this mean?William Bradford pilgram leader2 Rhode Island is the most liberal of the 13 colonies Makers of America: The English (50-51) Compare demographics of N. and S: ie, indentured males vs. families North was extreme weather, steril soil South hotdiseases Crash crops tobacco, rice, cotton Puritans vs. Indians Review Metacom’s War 1675 Metacom (King Phillip by the English)was Massasoit’s son (chief when the pilgrams landed) forged an alliance and mounted a series of coordinated assaults on English billages throught New Engalnd 1676 the war end ed and 52 Puritan towns had been attacked 2 towns were destroyed entirely drastically reduced the number of colonoist Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence New England Confederation (note the date) 1643, 4 New England colonies banded together to form the NE Confederation defense against foes or potentional foes Indians, Dutch, French Runaway servants also were the Confederation’s problem Each member only had 2 votes Exclusive Puritan club Why does Charles II provide charters to Rhode Island and Connecticut? What does this say about the relationship between the colonies (esp. Massachusetts) and England in the 17th century?Connecticut 1662 a sea to sea charter grant which legalized the squatter settlements 1663 Rhode Island received charter which gave kingly sanction to the most religious toleraent government to try and get more colonies of the King’s side Andros Promotes the First American Revolution Dominion of New England 1686 How is it different from New England C onfederation? It was imposed from London Embraced all New Engalnd and then included NY and East and West Jersey Aimed at bolstering colonial defence in the event war with the Indians What is its relationship to the Navigation Acts?Designed to promot urgently needed efficiency in the administration of the English Navigation Laws Laws reflected the intensifying colonial rivalries of the 17th centery Sought to stitch Engalnd’s overseas possessions more tightly to the motherland by throttling American trade with countries not ruled by England Caused lots of smuggling Why does the Dominion break up? Head of he Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros Military background Harsh, strict He generated much hostility by his open affiliation with the despised Church of England Colonist were outraged by noisy and Sabbath profaning soldiers He stopped town meetingRestrictions of church, school, press†¦ Taxed people without consent Enforced unpopular Navigation Laws, suppress smuggling 688-1689 colonists engineered the memorable Glourious (Bloddless) Revolution broke up because of the Glourious War in England Dethrouned Chaotlic James II and enthroned Protestean rulars of Netherlands William III and Mary Found him because he dressed as a human How does turning Massachusetts into a Royal Colony affect Puritan control of politics? Why do William and Mary of England do this? Turned into royal colony in 1691New charter and governer *****What is Salutary Neglect, why does it begin, and what were its limits? New monarchs relaxed their grip on colonial trade Period of salutary neglect Hands off approach Sort of taxation, didn’t really enforce it Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors & Dutch Residues in New York *Peter Stuyvesant Expedition in 1655 led Lost his leg soldiering in the West Indies Charles II and the founding of New York 1664 Charles II granted the area to his Brother Duke of York New Amsterdam rename New York Dutch legacyDutch peppered place names all ov er including Harlem, Brookyn, Hell Gate, Easter eggs, Santa, waffles, bowling, sleighing, skating, and Kolf (golf) Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania; Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors Quakers Arose in England during mid 1600s Offensive to authorities, civil and religious No clergy Deep conviction, abhorred strife and warfare Refused military service Advocates of passive resistance Pacifist (some of the 1st abolitionists) William Penn 1681 he secured a grant of fertile land from the kingPennsylvania (Penn’s Woodland) Best advertised of all colonies Unlike others Penn’s inducements were truthful Liberal land policy William Penn & Pennsylvania Launched his own colony in 1681 Philadelphia (brotherly love in Greek) Penn bought land from the Indians including Chrief Tammany He was so fair that the Quakers were among them unarmed and even used them as babysitters Philadelphia Quakers and Indians; Quaker tolerance (others; religions; slavery) and the Scots Iris h Very civil Other non Quaker and non Europeans moved in andWas unusually liberal and had a representative assembly elected by land owners No tax supported state church Death penetly only for treason and murder Forced by king to deny Jews and Catholics boting rights Attarted rich mix of ethic groups Quakers were shwerd businessmen By 1700 Penn surpassed BA and MA’s population and wealth New Jersey started in 1664 The Middle Ways in the Middle Colonies Name the â€Å"middle colonies: NY, NJ DE, PN ‘bread colonies’ [bread-basket of the British colonies in America] PN NY NJ Heavy wheat economy (now it’s Midwest , Nebraska, Iowa†¦.Make the comparison: â€Å"Middle Colonies† in more than just name: land holding politics, industry Midway between New England and the southern Generally intermediate in size (except NY) Fewer industries than north no plantation like the south Religious tolerance Good economy â€Å"Most American† – explain: All rounded Made it too the big city on his own Very successful Ethnically mixed Different religions Most democratic – Europeans and Africans adapted to the New World, Natives adapted to newcomers – Rigid doctrines of Puritanism softened – All colonies remained tied to England Regional differences – Increasing importance of slave labor to southern way of life The Unhealthy Chesapeake – Nasty, brutish, shot life for ChesapeakeMalaria, dysentery and typhoid took lots of lives – Majority of immigrants were single men in their late teens and early twenties (most perished soon after arrival) – Weak family ties – Chesapeake eventually acquired immunity – More women, more families – End of 17th century, white population of Chesapeake grew based on birthrate The Tobacco Economy – Chesapeake immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation Intense cultivation exhausted soil – This enormous production depressed pr ices, but colonial Chesapeake tobacco growers responded to falling prices in the familiar way of farmers: by planting still more acres to tobacco and bringing still more product to marketMore tobacco = More labor – Indians died too quickly – African slaves cost too much – England had may displaced farmers – â€Å"Indentured servants† – Virginia and Maryland â€Å"Headright† System = Encourage importation of servant workers – Masters reaped benefits of landownership – Investments in servants into vast holdings in real estate â€Å"White slaves† represented more than ? of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th century – Indentured servants Hard but hopeful life. Freedom dues. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion – Broken hopes of acquiring land – Hard to find single woman to marry – â€Å"having little interest in the country† and causing ‘tum ults at the election to the disturbance of his majesty’s peace† – William Berkeley (Virginian governor) – About 1,000 Virginians broke out of control in 1676 – Revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon (planter) *Rebels mainly frontiersmen – Fiercely resented Berkeley’s friendly policies toward Indians (whose thriving furtrade the governor monopolized * – Fell murderously upon Indians, friendly and hostile alike, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital * – Berkeley hung over 20 rebels * – Distant English King could scarcely imagine depths of passion and fear that Bacon’s Rebellion excited in Virginia Ignited smoldering unhappiness of landless former servants Pitted frontiersmen against haughty gentry – Less troublesome laborers to toil in the restless tobacco kingdom – Eyes it on Africa. Colonial Slavery – 10 million Africans – 400,000 of them ended up in N. Am. †“ Africans brought to Jamestown 1619, but as late as 1670s, numbered only 2,000 in Virginia – 1680s – Rising wages in England shrank pool of penniless folk – By mid-1680s, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies new arrivals – 1698, Royal African Company lost monopoly on carrying slaves to colonies – Rhode Islanders rushed to cash in on lucrative slave trade – Blacks accounted for nearly half the population of Virginia by 1750 S.C. , outnumbered whites two to one – Death rates on ship as high as 20% – Few of earliest African immigrants gained freedom (some became slaveowners) – White colonist reacted remorselessly to racial threat – RACE – 1662, statues appeared that formally decreed the iron conditions of slavery for blacks – â€Å"Slave Codes† made blacks and their children the property (or â€Å"chattels†) for life of their white masters – Not e ven conversion to Christianity could qualify a slave for freedom – Slavery begun because of economic reasons Racial discrimination powerfully molded American slave system Africans in America – South, slave life especially severe – Climate hostile to health – Only fresh imports could sustain the slave population under conditions – Slave population rose – Few slave societies in history to perpetuate itself by natural reproduction (Chesapeake) – Native-born African-Americans contributed to growth of a stable and distinctive slave culture – Af. Ams. = Mixture of African and American elements of speech, religion and folkways – S.C. , unique language Gullah Blended with English and several African languages – Ringshout, West African religious dance performed by shuffling in a circle while answering a preacher’s shouts, was brought to colonial America, and contributed to development of jazz – Banjo and bong o drum also part of African contributions – Slave revolt erupted in NYC in 1712 that cost the lives of dozens of whites and caused execution of 21 blacks (burned at stake) – S. C. lacks along Stono River exploded in revolt in 1739 and tried to march to Spanish Florida (stopped by local militia) – No slave uprising in American history matched Bacon’s Rebellion Southern Society – As slavery spread, gaps in South’s social structure widened – Rough equality defined hierarchy of wealth and status in early 18th century – Owning gangs of slaves and vast domains of land, planters ruled region’s economy and monopolized political powerHouse of Burgesses Before Revolutionary War, 70% of leaders of Virginia legislature came from families established in VA before 1690 – the famed â€Å"first families of Virginia† or â€Å"FFVs† – Merchant planters Not gentlemanly Cultivated arts and accumulated distinguish ed libraries Businessmen (labored long hours) – One governor allowed servants to get drunk the next day if they would only lay off the liquor long enough to look after his guests at a celebration or the queen’s birthday in 1711 – Small farmers – Largest social group – Landless whites – Luckless former indentured servants – Indentured servants – Black slaves = basement of society Few cities sprouted in colonial South (professional class slow to emerge and revolved around great plantations) – Waterways provided principal means of transport – Roads hard to travel by The New England Family -New England settlers have good lives: 10 additional years of life expectancy, clean air and water, cool temperature. -New Englanders migrated as families. -Women wedded early (around 20) and had babies every 2 years until menopause. -Because women we’re dying from giving birth, many women began to fear pregnancy. -Children r eceived guidance from their parents and their grandparents.Strong family relationships. -Southern men frequently died young and left wives as widows. The southern colonies later allowed married women to retain separate title to their property. They were also given the right to inherit their husband’s estate. -New England lawmakers worried that recognizing women’s separate property rights would undercut the unity of married people. So, women gave up their property rights when married. -Women couldn’t vote, morally weaker than men. -New England authorities begin to restrain abusive spouses. -Divorce was rare and authorities encouraged couples to get back together.Life in the New England Towns -Puritans- concerned about whole community. -After proprietors received grants of land, they moved with their families and started a town. -Consisted of meeting house, houses, village green. -Each family received several parcels of land, a woodlot for fuel, and 2 tracts (for growing and pasturing) -A majority of adults knew how to read and write. -1636- Harvard is established/ -Regular town meetings. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials -New form of sermon â€Å"jeremiad† -Individuals testify that they had received God’s grace and therefore deserved to be admitted to the church. 1662 Half-Way Covenant- the agreement between the church and its adherents to admit to baptism.Weakened the distinction between the â€Å"elect† and the others. -Puritans begin to accept anyone into their faith. -Teenage girls claimed to be bewitched by older women. This began the â€Å"witch hunt† -1692-lynching of 21 individuals and 2 dogs -Most accused witches came from families associated with Salem’s market economy -ended in 1693 when the governor (wife accused of witch-craft) prohibited any further trials and pardoned those convicted. The New England Way of Life -Weather was bad in New England. Soil and climate produced a dive rsified agriculture and industry. -Indians are well off.Recognized the right to use the land, but individual ownership was alien to them. -English brought pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle from Europe. -Colonists continually clearing forests. -New Englanders scattered. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways -The majority of colonists were farmers. -Women on southern plantations and farms wove, cooked, cleaned, and cared for children. Men cleared land; fenced, planted and cropped; cut firewood; and butchered livestock. -Land was cheap. The Spanish were at Santa Fe in  1610. The French were at Quebec in  1608.The English were at Jamestown, Virginia in  1607. England's Imperial Stirrings King Henry VIII  broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the  1530s, launching the  English Protestant Reformation, and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain. Elizabeth Energizes England In  1580,  Francis Drake  circumnavigated the globe, plundering and returning with his ship loaded with Spanish booty. He had a profit of about 4,600%. When the English fleet defeated the Spanish Armada, Spain's empirical dreams and fighting spirit had been weakened – helping to ensure the English's naval dominance over the North Atlantic.England on the Eve of an Empire Because an economic  depression  hit  England  in the later part of the 1500s and many people were left without homes, the stage was set for the establishment of an English beachhead in North America. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling In  1606, a joint-stock company, known as the  Virginia Company of London,  received a charter from  King James I of England  for a settlement in the New World. The company landed in Jamestown on  May 24, 1607. In  1608,  Captain John Smith  took over the town and forced the settlers into line.By  1609, of the 400 settlers who came to Virginia, only 60 survived the â€Å"starving winter† of 1609-1610. Cultural Clash in the Chesape ake Lord De La Warr  reached Jamestown in  1610  with supplies and military. He started the  First Anglo-Powhatan War. The Indians were again defeated in the  Second Anglo-Powhatan War  in  1644. By  1685, the English considered the Powhatan people to be extinct. Virginia: Child of Tobacco John Rolfe  married  Pocahontas  in  1614,  ending  the First Anglo-Powhatan War. In  1619, self-government was made in Virginia. The London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as the  House of Burgesses.King James I didn't trust the House of Burgesses and so in  1624, he made Virginia a colony of England, directly under his control. Maryland: Catholic Haven Maryland  was formed in  1634  by  Lord Baltimore. Maryland was made for a refuge for the Catholics to escape the wrath of the Protestant English government. The  Act of Toleration, which was passed in  1649  by the local representative group in Maryland, granted tolerati on to all Christians. The West Indies: Way Station to mainland America By the mid-17th Century, England had secured its claim to several West Indian Islands. Sugar  was, by far, the major crop on the Indian Islands.To support the massive sugar crops, millions of African slaves were imported. By 1700, the number of black slaves to white settlers in the English West Indies by nearly 4 to 1. In order to control the large number of slaves, theBarbados Slave Code of 1661  denied  even the most fundamental rights to slaves. Colonizing the Carolinas Civil war plagued England in the 1640s. In  1707, the Savannah Indians decided to end their alliance with the Carolinians and migrate to the back country of Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new colony founded by Quakers under  William Penn  promised better relations.Almost all of the Indians were killed in raids before they could depart – in  1710. Rice  became the primary export of the Carolinas. The Thirteen Original Colonies Name| Founded By| Year| Virginia| London Co. | 1607| New Hampshire| John Mason and Others| 1623| MassachusettsPlymouthMaine| PuritansSeparatistsF. Gorges| 162816201623| Maryland| Lord Baltimore| 1634| ConnecticutNew Haven| Mass. EmigrantsMass. Emigrants| 16351638| Rhode Island| R. Williams| 1636| Delaware| Swedes| 1638| N. Carolina| Virginians| 1653| New York| Duke of York| 1664| New Jersey| Berkeley and Carteret| 1664|Carolina| Eight Nobles| 1670| Pennsylvania| William Penn| 1681| Georgia| Oglethorpe and others| 1733| * France Finds a Foothold in Canada In  1598, the  Edict of Nantes  was issued by the crown of France. It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics. In  1608, France established  Quebec. (Catholic)   The leading figure was  Samuel de Champlain,  an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title â€Å"Father of New France†. The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king.The people did not elect any representative assemblies. New France Sets Out New France contained one valuable resource –  beaver. French Catholic missionaries, notably the  Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers. Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in  1701  to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley. Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana. In order to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana.The French founded  New Orleans  in  1718. Illinois became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there. The Clash of Empires The earliest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists as  King William's War (1689-1697)  and  Q ueen Anne's War (1702-1713). Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain. The wars ended in  1713  with peace terms signed at  Utrecht. France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay.The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America. The War of Jenkins's Ear started in  1739  between the British and Spaniards. This small battle became a war and became known as  King Georges's War in America. It ended in  1748  with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders. George Washington Inaugurates War with France In  1754, George Washington was sent to Ohio Country to secure the land of the Virginians who had secured legal rights to 500,000 acres. His 150 Virginia militia killed the French leader, causing French reinforcements to come.The Virginians were forced to surrender on  July 4, 1754. In  1755, the British uprooted the French Acadians fearing a stab in the back, and scattered them as far as Louisiana. Global War and Colonial Disunity The  French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)  started in  1754. It was fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the ocean. In Europe, the principal adversaries were Britain and Prussia on one side and France, Spain, Austria, and Russia on the other. The French wasted so many troops in Europe that they were unable to put enough forces into America.The  Albany Congress  met in  1754. Only 7 of 13 colony delegates showed up. It attempted to unite all of the colonies but the plan was hated by individual colonists and the London regime. Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath General Braddock  set out in  1755  with 2,000 men to capture  Fort Duquesne. His force was slaughtered by the much smaller French and Indian army. (Braddock's Blunder)   Due to this loss of troops, the whole fro ntier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina was left open to attack. George Washington, with only 300 men, tried to defend the area.In  1756, the British launched a  full-scale invasion of Canada. Pitt's Palms of Victory In  1757,  William Pitt  became the foremost leader in the London government. He was known as the â€Å"Great Commoner. †Ã‚   He attacked and captured  Louisbourg  in  1758. To lead the attack in the  Battle of Quebec  in  1759, Pitt chose  James Wolfe. The two opposing armies faced each other on the  Plains of Abraham, the British under Wolfe and the French under  Marquis de Montcalm. Montreal fell in  1760. The  Treaty of Paris (1763)  ended the battle and threw the French power off the continent of North America.Restless Colonists Intercolonial disunity  had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and the resentment of the crude back-country settlers against the aristocrats. Americans: A People of Destiny In  1763,  Ottawa chief,  Pontiac,  led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country.His warriors captured Detroit in the spring of that year and overran all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians. The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians. London government issued the  Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. (The Appalachian land was acquired after the British beat the Indians). It was made to prevent another bloody eruption between the settlers and Indians. Many colonists disregarded it. * The Deep Roots of Revolution Two ideas in particular had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid 18th  century:   1.Rep ublicanism- a just society in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good. Both the stability of society and the authority of government thus depended on the virtue of the citizenry-its capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage. 2. â€Å"Radical Whigs†, a group of British political commentators, made attacks on the use of patronage and bribes by the king's ministers. They warned citizens to be on guard for possible corruption. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances Georgia was the only colony to be formed by Britain.The  Navigation Law of 1650  stated that all goods flowing to and from the colonies could only be transported in British vessels. It was aimed to hurt rival Dutch shippers. The Stamp Tax Uproar Due to the French and Indian War, Britain had a very large debt. In  1763,  Prime Minister George Grenville  ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the  Navigation Laws. He also secured from Parliament the  Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for England. The Sugar Act increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies.The  Quartering Act of 1765  required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. In  1765, George Grenville imposed a stamp tax on the colonies to raise revenues to support the new military force. This stamp tax, known as the  Stamp Act, mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax. Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act The  Stamp Act Congress of 1765  brought together in New York City 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies. The members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and requested the king and Parliament to repeal the hated legislation.The meeting's ripples began to erode sectional suspicions (suspicions between the colonies), for it had brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies. It was one step towardsintercolonial unity. Nonimportation agreements  (agreements made to not import British goods)  were a stride toward unionism. The  Sons of Liberty  and  Daughters of Liberty  took the law into their own hands by enforcing the nonimportation agreements. The Stamp Act was repealed by Parliament in  1766. Parliament passed the  Declaratory Act, reaffirming its right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre In  1767, Parliament passed the  Townshend Acts. They put a light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. British officials, faced with a breakdown of law and order, landed 2 regiments of troops in the colonies in  1768. On  March 5, 1770, a crowd of 60 townspeople attacked 10 redcoats and the redcoats opened fired on the civilians, killing/wounding 11 of them. The massacre was known as the  Boston Massacre. The Sediti ous Committees of Correspondence Lord North was forced to persuade Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties.Samuel Adams- master propagandist and engineer of rebellion; formed the first local committee of correspondence in Massachusetts in  1772  (Sons of Liberty). Committees of Correspondance were created by the American colonies in order to maintain communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution when communication between the colonies became essential. In March of  1773, the Virginia  House of Burgesses, the lower house of the Colony of Virginia, proposed that each colonial legislature appoint a standing committee for intercolonial correspondance.Within just a year, nearly all of the colonies had joined. Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere In  1773,  the  British East India Company  was overstocked with 17 million pounds of unsold tea. If the company collapsed, the London government would lose much money. Therefore, the London government gave the company a full monopoly of the tea sell in America. Fearing that it was trick to pay more taxes on tea, the Americans rejected the tea. When the ships arrived in the Boston harbor, the governor of Massachusetts,  Thomas Hutchinson, forced the citizens to allow the ships to unload their tea.On  December 16, 1773, a band of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea. (Boston Tea Party) Parliament Passes the â€Å"Intolerable Acts† In  1774, Parliament punished the people of Massachusetts for their actions in the Boston Tea Party. Parliament passed laws, known as the  Intolerable Acts, which restricted colonists' rights. The laws made restrictions on town meetings, and stated that enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty would be sent to Britain for trial (where it was assumed they would be acquitted of their charges). One such law was the  Boston Port Act.It closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. The  Quebec Act  was also passed in  1774, but was not apart of the Intolerable Acts. It gave Catholic French Canadians religious freedom and restored the French form of civil law; this law nullified many of the Western claims of the coast colonies by extending the boundaries of the province of Quebec to the Ohio River on the south and to the Mississippi River on the west. The Continental Congress and Bloodshed In  1774, the  1st Continental Congress  met in Philadelphia in order to redress colonial grievances over the Intolerable Acts.The 13 colonies, excluding Georgia, sent 55 men to the convention. (The 1st Continental Congress was not a legislative body, rather a consultative body, and convention rather than a congress. ) After 7 weeks of deliberation, the  1st Continental Congress  drew up several papers. The papers included a  Declaration of Rights  and solemn appeals to other British-American colon ies, to the king, and to the British people. The creation of  The Association  was the most important outcome of the Congress. It called for a complete  boycott  of British goods; nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.In  April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to  Lexington. They were to seize provisions of colonial gunpowder and to capture the â€Å"rebel† ringleaders,  Samuel Adams  and  John Hancock. At Lexington, 8 Americans were shot and killed. This incident was labeled as the â€Å"Lexington Massacre. †Ã‚   When the British went on to Concord, they were met with American resistance and there were over 300 casualties and 70 deaths. Because of this, the British had a  war, rather than a rebellion on their hands. Imperial Strength and WeaknessesThe population of Britain was over 3 times as large as the population of America. Britain also had a much greater economic wealth and naval power. Unfortunate ly for the British, though, there was rebellion brewing in Ireland, and France, bitter from its recent defeat, was waiting for an opportunity to attack Britain. Britain was therefore forced to divert much of its military power and concentration away from the Americas. Britain's army in America had to operate under numerous difficulties; provisions were short and soldiers were treated brutally.American Pluses and Minuses Marquis de Lafayette- French who was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19; the â€Å"French Gamecock†; his services were invaluable in securing further aid from France. The  Articles of Confederation  was adopted in  1781. It was the first written constitution adopted by colonists. Due to the lack of metallic money in America, Continental Congress was forced to print â€Å"Continental† paper money. Within a short time, this money depreciated significantly and individual states were forced to print their own paper money.A Thin Line of Heroes At  Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American men went without food for 3 days in the  winter  of  1777-1778. Baron von Steuben- German who helped to whip the America fighters into shape for fighting the British. Lord Dunmore- royal (British) governor of Virginia. In  1775, he issued a proclamation  promising freedom  for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army. â€Å"Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment† Congress Drafts George Washington The Second Continental Congress selected  George Washington  to head the army besieging Boston.Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were both affirming their loyalty to the king by sincerely voicing their desire to patch up difficulties while at the same time raising armies and killing redcoats. In May 1775, a tiny American force under  Ethan Allen  and  Benedict Arnold  captured the British garrisons at  Ticonderoga and Crown Point. There, a stor e of gunpowder and artillery was secured. In June 1775, the colonists captured  Bunker Hill. The British took it back with a large number of soldiers.In  July 1775, the Second Continental Congress adopted the â€Å"Olive Branch Petition†, which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop further hostilities. The petition was rejected by the king. With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power. In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion. He then hired German  Hessians  to bring order to the colonies. The Abortive Conquest of Canada In October 1775, the  British burned Falmouth  (Portland), Maine.In the same month, colonists made an attack on Canada in hopes that it would close it off as a possible source for a British striking point. The attack failed whenGeneral Richard Montgomery  was killed. In January 1776, the  Britis h set fire to Norfolk. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense The Americans continued to  deny any intention of independence  because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous.Thomas Paine  released a pamphlet called  Common Sense  in  1776. It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence. Paine and the Idea of â€Å"Republicanism† Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a  republic, where power flowed from the people themselves. Jefferson's Explanation of Independence On July 2, 1776,  Richard Henry Lee  of Virginia's  resolution of declaring independence was passed. It was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies.Thomas Je fferson  was appointed to draft up the  Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence  was formally  approved  by Congress on  July 4, 1776. It was an explanation of everything the king had done to the Americans. Patriots and Loyalists During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called â€Å"Tories† and the Patriots were called â€Å"Whigs. †Ã‚   Tory: â€Å"a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched. † The Loyalists made up 16% of the American population. Many people of education and wealth remained loyal  Ã‚  to England.Loyalists were most numerous where the  Anglican church  was strongest. The  Loyalists  were well entrenched in  New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania,  and  New Jersey. They were least numerous in New England. The  Patriots  were numerous where  Presbyterianism and Congregationalism  flourished-mostly in New England. The Loyali st Exodus Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were treated relatively mild. After, though, they were hanged, imprisoned, and roughly handled. They Loyalists were forced to leave because the Patriots had to eliminate their weaknesses.General Washington at Bay The  British  concentrated  New York City  as a base of operation due to the fact that Boston was evacuated in March 1776. In  1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the  Battle of Long Island. Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island. General William Howe  was General Washington's adversary. On  December 26, 1776, Washington surprised and captured  1,000 Hessians  who were sleeping. Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion London officials had an intricate scheme for capturing the vital  Hudson River valley in 1777.It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force, lead by  General Burgoyne, w ould push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's  troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany. The 3rd  force was commanded by colonelBarry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at  Saratoga  on  October 17, 1777  to American general  Horatio Gates  (Burgoyne's Blunder).This win made it possible for the urgently needed  foreign aid from France. (Turning point in war. ) Strange French Bedfellows After the shooting at  Lexington  in April 1775, French secretly provided arms to the Americans. The British offered the Americans  home rule  after the Battle of Saratoga. The French didn't want Britain to regain its colonies for fear that Britain would seize the  sugar rich French West Indies. In order to stop this, the  French made an open alliance  with the Americans in  1778, o ffering all the British did with the exception of independence.The Colonial War Becomes a World War Spain and Holland became allies against Britain in  1779. The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City. Blow and Counterblow General Benedict Arnold  turned traitor against the Americans in 1780. General Nathaniel Greene  succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier The  Treaty of Fort Stanwix- (1784) the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation; signed with the Iroquois.George Rogers Clark- conceived the idea of capturing the British of the wild Illinois country in 1778-1779. John Paul Jones  is known as the father of the navy. He employed the tactic of privateering. Privateering- when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted manpo wer from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few. Yorktown and the Final CurtainFrom 1780-1781, the U. S. government fell nearly bankrupt. British General Cornwallis  fell back to Chesapeake Bay at  Yorktown  to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. This time in war was one of the few times when British naval superiority had been lacking. Admiral de Grasseoffered to join the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea. George Washington, along with  Rochambeau's army, and Admiral de Grasse cornered Cornwallis. He was forced to  surrender on October 19, 1781. Peace at Paris In 1782, a Whig ministry replaced the Tory regime of Lord North.Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783: British formally recognized the independence of the United States. Florida is given to Spain. Britain granted generous boundaries, stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. Yankees were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland. The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted. Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection.Ben Franklin,  John Adams, and  John Jay  negotiated the peace terms with Britain. The Pursuit of Equality The Continental Army officers formed an exclusive hereditary order called the  Society of the Cincinnati. Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom-  created in  1786  by Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers; stated that religion should not be imposed on anybody and that each person decided his/her own faith. The Philadelphia  Quakers  in  1775  founded the first  anti-slavery society. The 1st Continental Congress called for the complete  abolition of the slave trade  in  1774.Seve ral northern states went further and either abolished slavery altogether or provided the gradual emancipation of slaves. No states south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery. Constitution Making in the States The 2nd Continental Congress called upon the colonies in  1776  to draft  new constitutions. Massachusetts called a special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted the final draft to the people. As  written  documents, the state constitutions were intended to represent a  fundamental law, superior to the short-lived impulses of ordinary legislation.In the Revolutionary era, the capitals of New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were all moved westward. Economic Crosscurrents Economic democracy preceded political democracy. Due to the independence from Britain, the United States had to make everything on its own which it no longer imported from Britain. Many Americans were poor because the economy was so bad. Creat ing a Confederation Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd  Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation.The finished product was the  Articles of Confederation. It was  adopted  by Congress in  1777  and it convinced France that America had a genuine government in the making. The Articles of Confederation wasn't  ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution The 13 colonies were joined together for joint action in dealing with common problems such as foreign affairs. Congress had 2 major handicaps: It had no power to regulate commerce, and this loophole left the states free to establish conflictingly laws regarding tariffs and navigation.Congress couldn't enforce its tax collection program. The states were NOT required to pay the government taxes, they were merely asked. Landmarks in Land Laws Land Ordinance of 1785- stated that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. Northwest Ordinance of 1787- a uniform national land policy; created the Northwest Territories and gave the land to the government, the land could then be purchased by individuals; when a territory had 60,000 people, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the 13 other states.The World's Ugly Duckling Britain declined to make any commercial treaty with the colonies or to repeal its Navigation Laws. Lord Sheffield  argued in his pamphlet that Britain could win back America's trade. The  British remained in the Americas  where they maintained their fur trade with the Indians. The American states did not honor the treaty of peace in regard to debts and Loyalists. The British stayed primarily to keep the Indians on the side of the British so to defend against future attacks on Canada by the Americans. Spain was openly unfriendly to the Americans.It closed of f the Mississippi river to commerce in  1784. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy Shay's Rebellion- in western Massachusetts in  1786; when impoverished back-country farmers, who were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies, attempted to enforce their demands of cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of property takeovers; led by  Captain Daniel Shays. The uprising was crushed but it left fear in the propertied class of mobs. A Convention of â€Å"Demigods† In  1786, Virginia called for a  convention at Annapolis, Maryland.There,  Alexander Hamilton  saved the convention from collapsing – delegates from only 5 states showed up. He called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with just commerce, but to  fix then entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton  was an advocate of a super-powerful central government. On  May 25, 1787, 55 representa tives from all of the states except for Rhode Island were sent to Philadelphia to talk of the government in the future of the country. (Constitutional Convention)   George Washington was elected as the leader. Patriots in PhiladelphiaThe delegates hoped to save the revolutionary idealism and make it into a strong political structure. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises Some of the delegates decided they would  scrap  the old Articles of Confederation, contradicting instructions from Congress to revise it. The â€Å"large-state plan† was proposed by Virginia and was first pushed forward as the framework of the Constitution. It said that the arrangement in Congress should be based upon a state's population. New Jersey presented the â€Å"small-state plan. †Ã‚   It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population.The â€Å"Great Compromise† of the convention was hammered out and finally agreed upon. It called for representation by population in the  House of Representatives, and equal representation in the  Senate. Each state would have 2 senators. The new  Constitution  also called for a President. Because of arguments over if the slaves would count towards the general population of the state, the â€Å"three-fifths compromise† was created. The new Constitution also called for the  end of the slave trade by the end of 1807. All new state constitutions except Georgia's forbade overseas slave trade.Rhode Island was not present at the Constitutional Convention. Safeguards for Conservatism The members of the Constitutional Convention agreed economically-demanded sound money and the protection of private property; and politically-favored a stronger government with 3 branches and with checks and balances among them. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists The Anti-federalists were led by  Samuel Adams,  Patrick Henry, and  Richard Henry Lee. The followers consisted of states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers – in general, the poorest class.Federalists were led by  George Washington  and  Benjamin Franklin. Most of the Federalists lived in the settled areas along the seaboard. Overall, they were wealthier than the Anti-federalists, more educated, and better organized. They also controlled the press. The Great Debate in the States Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire were the first 9 states to sign the Constitution. Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island were the only states to not sign it. (4 Laggard States)The Four Laggard States Virginia, New York, and North Carolina all ratified the Constitution before it was put into effect. Rhode Island was the last state to ratify it and it did so only after the new government had been in operation for a few months. These 4 states did not ratify the Constitution because the y wanted to but because they had to. They could not safely exist outside the fold. A Conservative Triumph The architects of the Constitution contented that every branch-executive, judiciary, and legislative-effectively represented the people.By imbedding the principle of self-rule in a self-limiting system of checks and balances among these 3 branches, the Constitution settled the conflicting doctrines of liberty and order. * Washington for President George Washington was unanimously elected as President by the Electoral College in  1789. He took the oath of office on April 30, 1789. He established the cabinet. At first,  Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson,  Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and  Secretary of War Henry Knox  served under Washington. Bill of Rights James Madison  wrote the  Bill of Rights  and got them passed by Congress in  1791.The  Judiciary Act of 1789  created the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general. John Jay  became the first Chief Justice. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit In order to create a thriving federal government,  Alexander Hamilton  set out to create a plan to shape the policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups. These wealthier groups would then gratefully lend their money and political support to the government. The wealth in the government would then trickle down through society.In this plan, Hamilton persuaded Congress to fund the entire national debt at par, meaning that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest. This would strengthen the national credit by creating public confidence in the small Treasury department. He then convinced Congress to take on the states' debts, which would create confidence in the government by the states. States with large debts, like Massachusetts, were delighted with Hamilton's proposal, but states with small debts, like Virginia, did not want the government to assume state ebts. Virginia did, however, want the forthcoming federal district, the District of Columbia, which would bring commerce and prestige. So Virginia made a deal with the government:   the government would assume state debts if the District of Columbia was placed on the Potomac River. The deal was passed by Congress in  1790. Customs, Duties, and Excise Taxes One of Hamilton's objectives was to keep a  national debt, believing that the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal stake in the success of the government.In this objective, he expected  tariff revenues  to pay interest on the huge debt and run the government. The first tariff law, which imposed a low tax of 8% on the value of imports, was passed by Congress in  1789. Its purpose was to create revenue and to create a small protective wall around small industries. He passed additional internal revenue and, in  1791, convinced Congress to pass an  excise tax  on a few domestic items, notably whiskey. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank Alexander Hamilton proposed a  Bank of the United States  that could print paper money and thus provide a stable national currency.The national bank would also be place where the Treasury could deposit monies. Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed the Bank stating it was unconstitutional. He felt that the states had the right to manage their own money. Most of the opposition came from the south and most of the support came from the north. Hamilton prevailed and the 1st  Bank of the United States was created in  1791. Its charter lasted for 20 years and was located in Philadelphia. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania The  Whiskey Rebellion  in Pennsylvania in  1794  was lead by distillers who strongly opposed the 1791 excise tax on whiskey.The rebellion was ended when President Washington sent in federal troops. Although the troops faced no opposition, a strong message was sent by the government stating that it would enforce the law. The Emergence of Political Parties Political parties had not existed in America when George Washington took office. What was once a personal feud between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton had developed into a full-blown and bitter political rivalry. In the 1790s, Jefferson and Madison organized their opposition to the Hamiltonian program but confined it to Congress.In due time, this organized opposition grew and the  two-party system  emerged. The Impact of the French Rebellion When Washington's first administration had ended in 1793, a formation of two political groups had ensued:   Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans  and  Hamilton Federalists. The  French Revolution  started in  1789. It began peacefully but entered a violent phase when France declared war on Austria in 1792. Things sta rted to get worse when King Louis XVI was beheaded in 1793, the church was attacked, and the head-rolling Reign of Terror was begun.At first, the Federalists supported the revolution  but that view suddenly changed when the attitude of the revolution changed. Washington's Neutrality Proclamation Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans wanted to get into the  French and British War  to fight  for  France. The Federalists were  opposed. Washington issued the  Neutrality Proclamation of 1793  stating the country's neutrality from the Britain-France war. He was backed by Hamilton. Embroilments with Britain For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U. S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783.The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the  Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans. The Jeffersonians felt that American s hould again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties. The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain. Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell In a last attempt to avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice  John Jay  to London in  1794  to negotiate.Opposed by Democratic-Republicans, Jay hammered out a treaty,  Jay's Treaty, in which the British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U. S. soil and pay for damages for the seizures of American ships. Britain stopped short of pledging anything about future maritime seizures or about supplying arms to Indians. The treaty also called for the U. S. to continue to pay the debts owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary War accounts. Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U. S.In  Pinckney's Treaty of 1795  with Spain, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the large disputed territory north of Florida. In his Farewell Address to the nation, Washington urged against permanent alliances. He left office in  1797. John Adams Becomes President John Adams  beat Thomas Jefferson to become to the  2nd  President in 1797. Hamilton became the leader of the  Federalist Party, known as the â€Å"High Federalists. † Unofficial Fighting with France France was upset with Jay's Treaty and it started capturing American